MARINE PILING ~ 
INVESTIGATIONS 


NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL - 


THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE 
LIBRARY 


Lay? 


Walter H. Fulweiler 


Memorial Library Fund 


Meek INE STFTRUCITURES 


THEIR DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION 


MARINE STRUCTURES 


THEIR DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION 


REPORT 
of the 


COMMITTEE ON MARINE PILING INVESTIGATIONS 
of the DIVISION OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL 
RESEARCH of the NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 


By 


WILLIAM G. ATWOOD and A. A. JOHNSON 


with the collaboration of William F. Clapp, 
of Robert C. Miller, of the University of 
California, and of H. W. Walker, H. S. 
McQuaid and Marjorie S. Allen, of the 
Chemical Warfare Service, U. S. A. 


Published by the 
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 
Washington, D. C. 


‘ 


Copyrighted, 1924 
a by 
WILLIAM G, ATWOOD 
and ' 
A. A. JOHNSON 
Printed in U. S. A. 


= 
$ 
r¢ 
a 
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; 


Prefatory Note 


HIS report presents the results of work done by the Commit- 

tee on Marine Piling Investigations of the Division of Engi- 
neering and Industrial Research of the National Research Coun- 
cil. In its work the Committee was assisted by the Divisions of 
Biology and Agriculture and of Chemistry and Chemical Tech- 
nology of the Council. The Committee wishes to acknowledge 
also the generous contributions of funds and services by a large 
number of other agencies and individuals. Without these con- 
tributions it would have been impossible to have carried on the 
investigations which are reported in the following pages. 

While these investigations were planned by the Committee, the 
credit for their administration is due to Colonel William G. At- 
wood, Director of Investigations for the Committee. Full credit 
is also due to Colonel Atwood and to Mr. A. A. Johnson, Assistant 
to the Director, for the writing of this report, with the exception 
of those sections for which other authors are indicated. 

The Committee presents this report with the distinct realiza- 
tion that much remains to be done in future study on the several 
phases of the problem of the protection of structures in sea- 
water. It is believed, however, that the work of the Committee 
has oveen brought to a stage where such a compilation as this of 
results already obtained is warranted and it is hoped that the 
data here brought together may be found to be of value to the 
engineering profession. 

Rea BEUYS; 


Chairman, Committee on 
Marine Piling Investigations 
National Research Council 


3807 


em 


AX, 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I EN TRODUCTION “ier es bee ek oy eS r 
CHAPTER II PLO LOG S eTT aT arate corer cre oracles cia Sthia ea We een a 6 
OUleCtLOMe OLE DECLINE SE ric hin wetter see 6 
Sree alee Lest omens 2 ey teach tits seis sore chee oils he tua d ve 10 
VY i CPon A Tis |S OS es, bre) oye shale deo aw ard sa allede toate 18 
eee Perotti.) “ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER. .......s.0+200000% 21 
(SE ACED ai Pes, SOR a oe aaa + iio hes al 
CLD LSC AMR Rees Pete eee ede See aw hada eboral b WERE 26 
MOND LAN aAULOde OL aU Settee sate ates 5 eer oe ee ee Do 
CHAPTER IV PEN IREAT Om ISORINGUIN. BROCK «4 cic utat wide slsldmce trons 71 
CHAPTER V TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED...... ye 
CHAPTER VI PROTECTION) AGAINST BDORERS dec. ss cc cde sees un oe 87 
EEE gs (pet Re a ee Bt nd Se aa 87 
SEER CPRLY DM lO eres se dia oie tee ieee Sk endo se SA ea 88 
Artin sand PCATTITN Saris sos .. cite Pere. Me 88 
TIE SOR UILIS Sec cla Pee teers oe ea dee 90 
1 SUIS els Nata 0 1 ag gis ae eR AN OR TN Tan 92 
Piee edit TOSOr VALVES Bolas Sie ay eleh ante eens 106 
Peat reK Vil SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER ©... . 6.06.60 0e5 00000088 151 
(COUN CEOLO ML Tee ran. See te te, Seasacdhe s Sate eate 151 
MGT EOLEUCCUTES Sart Ve PR or oe Cie cua wee 158 
COnrCclusiOns +. Se es as Oe eae 162 
CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.......... 163 


CHAPTER IX PROGRESS REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL WARFARE . 


Test of the Chlorine Method of Protection, 


Appendix IT 22..,. 12 5. eae 197 
Preservation of New Wooden Structures, 
Appendix JIT 0... sc sc eels «oe ee 202 
CHAPTER X HARBOR. REPORTS. . ... oid:« 4,6: eyeeie See 221, 
Maine Coast. ..<...ssssu0sss0 eee 221 
Portsmouth, N. H., to Provincetown, Mass.....231 
Boston Harbor. «.. . <« 0 «5 e550 238 
Buzzards and Narragansett. Bays... 248 
Long Island Sound .-.... 2. csc5 eee 258 
New York Harbor ......... <a eae een 265 
New Jersey Coast and Delaware Bay......... 285 
Baltimore Harbor... .....< 2150) Gen 288 
Norfolk Harbor «. 6.0) 3 626... ee 289 
Beaufort (N. C.) Harbor and Cape Fear River .303 
Charleston Harbor ....4,.)0¢.) «eee 308 
Savannah and Brunswick ....5...-3-0e eee 312 
Eastern Coast of Flerida 2.5.0.5 cues se 319 
Key West, Fla. ... 2... +s so sjaleuenen sane ae 331 
Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi River to Key West.336 
Mobile Harbor’... .. Sv. 0. pee ee 354 
Gulf of Mexico, Sabine Pass to Point Isabel. ..358 
West Coast of Mexico: 2202.9. 705 sae 371 
San Diego Bay ...... << aioe sale neat ee 372 
Los Angeles Harbor 4). cf - uses ieee 379 
San Francisco Bay ..<:...2 4s. eee 383 
Puget’ Sound  ..... «2. as sco = oo ee 892 
British Columbia ...... ssc ee ee 408 
Alaskan Goast ......s0 +s «5.5 seen nena 403 
Guantanamo, Cuba ... 2...) ee 413 
Virgin Islands .... 2% «0+ ce 4 cena ene 418 
Republic of Haiti ..... 02 222 eee 423 
Dominican Republic :..... 2.055 426 
Porto Rico 64.6040 i Getenare cle een 435 
Canal - ZOMC ss «sce nis)s egies Ona 442 
Pacific Islands ........ <5. :0 aeene een 448 
CHAPTER XI BIBLIOGRAPHY  . ws... seh + «+ 4 «05 eee 462 
ADDENDA To NEW YORK HARBOR REPORT. 222.0992. ee 523 


MARINE STRUCTURES 


Their Deterioration and Preservation 


CHAPTER I 


INTRODUCTION 


Organization 

The section of the San Francisco Bay area forming the northeastern por- 
tion of the bay contained many large and valuable structures practically all 
of which had been constructed on unprotected wooden piles during the 40 
years preceding 1920. While San Francisco Bay proper had since 1849 
been known to be infested by marine borers, none of them had been known 
in the northeastern section through which the waters of the San Joaquin 
and Sacramento Rivers were discharged. 

In 1914 it was found that a species of shipworm previously unknown in, 
or at least unrecorded from, these waters had attacked the dikes at the en- 
trance to the Mare Island Navy Yard and other structures in this part of 
the ‘bay, and in 1917 signs of serious damage appeared in the dikes. Within 
the next four years practically every timber structure in San Pablo Bay 
and Carquinez Straits was destroyed, and those in Suisun Bay were attacked. 
Local engineers, chemists and biologists formed a committee for the purpose 
of endeavoring to devise protective measures. On account of the magnitude 
of the problem and its importance to all sections of the country, members 
of this committee requested the National Research Council to organize the 
study on a nation-wide scale. 

For this purpose the National Research Council organized the Committee 
on Marine Piling Investigations to study the preservation of wooden struc- 
tures from the attack of borers and to conduct an investigation into the 
value and proper use of the various substitutes for timber of which concrete 
is the most important. 

This Committee consisted of the following members: 


R. T. Betts, Chairman Construction Engineer—Chief En- 
gineer of the Robbins-Ripley Com- 
pany, New York City 


George J. Ray, Vice-Chairman Chief Engineer of the Delaware, 
Lackawanna and Western Railroad, 
Hoboken, N. J. 


Albert L. Barrows, Secretary Biologist—Assistant Secretary Na- 
tional Research Council, Washing- 


ton, D. C. 

W. D. Bancroft Chemist — Professor of Physical 
Chemistry, Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 


2 INTRODUCTION 


Alfred D. Flinn Civil Engineer — Director of the 
Engineering Foundation, New 
York 


George M. Hunt Wood Preserving Specialist—U. S. 
Forest Service, Madison, Wis. 


Charles A. Kofoid Biologist — Professor of Zoology, 
University of California, Berkeley, 
Cal. 


Col. John Stephen Sewell Concrete Specialist—President of 
the Alabama Marble Company, Bir- 
mingham, Ala. 


Hermann von Schrenk Consulting Timber Engineer, New 
York Central R. R.,:N. YeuNe ec 
H. R._B.,. ete, St Louige ace 


Hon. C. H. Huston, Assistant Secretary, Department of Commerce, was 
designated by the President as a member of the Committee representing 
the Federal Government, and served as such for a short time until his 
resignation from the Government service. 

The Committee organized early in 1922, and in February engaged Col. 
William G. Atwood as Director. Some time was spent in studying the prob- 
lem, planning the work, securing funds and arranging for the assistance 
and cooperation of the various organizations interested. 

In March the Director appeared before the annual meeting of the Amer- 
ican Railway Engineering Association, which is also the Engineering Divi- 
sion of the American Railway Association, and explained the plans for the 
investigation. The American Railway Engineering Association recommended 
to the American Railway Association and the individual roads having water- 
front properties that the investigation be supported by the contribution 
of services, supplies and money. The project was also presented, under the 
auspices of the National Research Council and the National Academy of 
Sciences to the various United States Government Departments and their 
support and assistance solicited. The plans were approved, active assistance 
was promised and has since been enthusiastically given by the following 
bureaus: 


Treasury Department United States Coast Guard 


Navy Department Bureau of Yards and Docks 
Bureau of Construction and Repair 


War Department Quartermaster Corps 
Corps of Engineers — 


Department of Agriculture Forest Products Laboratory 


Department of Commerce Lighthouse Service 
Bureau of Fisheries 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey 


During the winter of 1922-23 it was found that the biological studies had 
progressed to a point where studies of toxicity and wood impregnation were 
desirable, and the Chemical Warfare Service of the Army took up this 
work. The necessary funds were supplied by the Bureau of Yards and Docks 
of the Navy, the Quartermaster Corps of the Army and the Department of 


BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 2 


Commerce, which also made available the laboratory facilities of the Bureau 
of Fisheries at Beaufort, N. C. 


Since it appeared probable that the harbor of New York might be subject 
to attack, a committee consisting of representative engineers, biologists 
and chemists, under the chairmanship of Mr. E. P. Goodrich, was formed 
to cooperate with the National Committee. 


The existing San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee was at its own 
request designated as a similar cooperating body. 


The central office of the Committee has been maintained in the building 
of the Engineering Societies, 29 West 39th Street, New York City, and 
the space occupied has been furnished by the Engineering Foundation. The 
force employed has consisted of the Director, Assistant to the Director, 
and usually two stenographers. 


The function of this organization has been to act as a clearing house for 
information regarding the problem, to make a study of existing literature, 
to plan and direct the field and laboratory investigations, to coordinate the 
work of investigators along various lines, to prepare for publication infor- 
mation developed by study and experiment, and to furnish useful informa- 
tion to owners of waterfront structures. In addition the Director has acted 
as the executive for the New York Committee, and for the work of that 
committee he employed, for varying periods, an engineer, a chemist, and a 
biologist. The Director has made addresses or presented papers before the 
Municipal Engineers of. New York, the American Railway Engineering Asso- 
ciation, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Association 
of Port Authorities and the American Society for Testing Materials, and is 
serving as a member of the Marine Piling sub-committee of the Committee 
on Wood Preservation of the American Railway Engineering Association, 
while the Assistant to the Director is a member of the Masonry Committee 
of the same organization. The Director and the Assistant to the Director 
have also presented a joint paper before the American Society of Civil 
Engineers on the “Disintegration of Cement in Sea Water.” In addition 
to papers presented to the above-mentioned societies, articles written in the 
Director’s office or prepared from data furnished from that source have 
appeared in the ‘‘Railway Age,” “Engineering News-Record,” ‘South At- 
lantic Ports,” “World Ports,” ‘Scientific American,” ‘Pacific Marine Re- 
view,” “Military Engineer” and other technical journals, and in the daily 
press. 


Biological Survey 


It was found that while there was much general information regarding 
the marine borers, there was very little accurate knowledge as to species, 
occurrence, habits, capacity for destruction, ecology, etc., and it was realized 
that a proper study of protection could not be made until this information 
had been collected. A biological survey was plainly necessary, and the 
means for doing the field work were at hand through the various ere aniza 
tions which had promised their cooperation. 


Arrangements were made for the inspection and study: we one specimens 
collected on the Atlantic and Gulf Coast and the Caribbean Islands by Mr. 
W. F. Clapp of Cambridge, Mass., and with Dr. C. A. Kofoid and Dr. R. C. 
Miller of Berkeley, Cal., for similar work with specimens collected on the 
Pacific Coast and Islands. Specimens from the immediate vicinity of New 


4 ; INTRODUCTION 


York received their preliminary inspection from Dr, S. L. Kornhauser and 
Mr. F. A. Varrelman, who were employed by the Director’s office for the 
New York Committee for about one year. Mr. Clapp was first furnished 
with laboratory facilities by the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard 
University, and later by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The 
University of California furnished similar facilities to Dr. Kofoid and Dr. 
Miller, and similar assistance for the New York work was given ‘by the 
American Museum of Natural History. 


Valuable advice and assistance have been received from Dr. Paul Barteel 
and Dr. Waldo Schmitt of the United States National Museum (Smithsonian 
Institution) of Washington, from Dr. C. H. Townsend of the New York 
Aquarium, and Mr. Roy Miner of the American Museum of Natural History, 
and from Dr. E. L. Mark of Harvard University, Dr. Harriet Richardson 
Searle, Mr. Austin H. Clark, who served on the Committee as biologist until 
February 4, 1922, and was later associated with this work as consulting 
biologist, and others. 


At the same time that the collection of specimens was going on, observa- 
tions at selected points were made as to salinity and temperature, and at 
such additional points as laboratory facilities were available oxygen content 
and hydrogen ion concentration have been determined. 


All this biological and chemical work has been carried on without cost 
to the committee except for some minor supplies, small payments to the 
assistants of Mr. Clapp and Dr. Kofoid, and the salaries of the New York 
chemist and biologists, 


Substitutes for Timber 


Since the supply of available timber for harbor and other construction is — 
rapidly diminishing and the cost just as rapidly increasing, the use of other 
materials is becoming of great importance. The two principal materials so 
used are metal and concrete, either alone or in combination, and a large 
amount of information has been collected and published as to the service 
records of structures of these materials. 


Concrete is far the most important of the substitutes for timber, and is 
also used for the protection of timber, and since it is known to deteriorate 
in sea water, a study of this material is fully as important as, if not more 
so than, an investigation of means for protecting timber against borers. A 
study of service records and reports showed that this deterioration was 
much more general and much more serious from an economic standpoint 
than has generally been thought to be the case. 


American and foreign records indicated that the chemical failure of the 
cement was one of the most important causes of failure, and the paper on 
this subject presented before the American Society of Civil Engineers has 
received wide discussion and aroused much interest. Announcement has 
been made that manufacture of one of the foreign cements to which attention 
was called in this paper will be commenced in the United States in the spring 
of 1924, and the importation of materials for improving the quality of Port- 
land cement has also recently been arranged for. 


A series of experiments has been planned for the testing of materials 
found in the United States and appearing to have similar qualities to those 
produced abroad, as well as the development of proper methods of mixing 
them with Portland cement. 


CONTRIBUTORS 5 


Finance 


The cash contributions to the support of the committee have been made 
by the following organizations: 


Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 

Bangor and Aroostook Railroad 

Boston and Maine Railroad 

Central of Georgia Railroad 

Central Railroad of New Jersey 

Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad 

Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad 
Erie Railroad 

Florida East Coast Railway 

Kansas City Southern Railway 

Lehigh Valley Railroad 

Long Island Railroad 

New York Central Railroad 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad 
Norfolk and Western Railroad 

Pennsylvania Railroad 

San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railroad 
Santa Fe System 

Seaboard Air Line Railroad 

Southern Railway 

Southern Pacific Railroad 

Virginian Railway 

American Sugar Refining Company 

Atlantic Steamship Lines (Southern Pacific Company) 
Cunard Line 

Port of New Orleans 

Barrett Company 

National Research Council 


In addition to their cash contributions, these organizations, the bureaus 
of the Federal Government, departments of State and municipal govern- 
ments, industries and other property owners, have furnished services 
amounting in value to more than double the cash contributions, 


The American Railway Engineering Association, in addition to the ex- 
tremely valuable assistance of their organization in the carrying on of 
the entire investigation, has allowed the use of the plates showing the 
results of water analyses and a number of others which originally ap- 
peared in the reports of the Committee on Wood Preservation (Committee 
my it) in 192735 and 1924. 


CHAPTER II 


BIOLOGY 


The destructive marine boring animals have two distinct methods of 
attack, in accordance with the group to which they belong. 


The molluscan borers enter the timber as minute young individuals and 
burrow and grow at the same time, but never enlarge the entrance hole. 
The result is that the interior of the timbers inhabited by them may be 
thoroughly honeycombed without the exterior exhibiting any evidence on 
the outside except the small and easily overlooked entrance holes to show 
that any attack has occurred. The size, shape and character of the borings 
vary greatly with the different genera. 


The wood-boring Crustacea run shallow galleries just beneath the surface 
of the structure, but since these animals are found in great numbers, fre- 
quently two to three hundred per square inch, their work thoroughly de- 
stroys the outer layer of the wood which is washed away and a new surface 
is opened to attack. This form of attack is less dangerous than that of the 
boring Mollusca, because the damage can be readily seen on casual inspec- 
tion, while that resulting from the activities of the Mollusca can not. 


Under conditions conducive to the greatest activity, the molluscan borers 
may destroy a 14 inch pile in a few months, while the Se borers 
have not been known to do this in less than a year. 


The literature on the subject of marine borers gave very little information 
regarding the distribution of the species, the relative amount of damage 
of which different species were capable, or the ecological conditions under 
which they lived. Such knowledge is necessary in order that possible attack 
may be predicted and prevented or actual attack reduced in intensity or 
altogether stopped. 


There also seemed to be little information available regarding the food 
requirements and breeding habits of the various species, and still less re- 
garding the effect of various toxic substances on the borers. 


Information regarding the physiology of the borers was also limited to 
the results of incomplete investigation of one or two species. 


COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS 


In order to procure specimens of as many of the existing species of borers 
as possible, information as to their relative and actual importance, period 
of activity, etc., a system of test boards was devised, and in addition ar- 
rangements were made for the collection of specimens of timber from struc- 
tures which had been attacked. 

The first or ‘1922 model” test boards consisted of a plank, or metal or 
concrete bar on which were fastened 24 blocks of 2 in. x 4in. x 5 in. 8. 4S. 
pines Chigiel)* 

These blocks were numbered and were removed from the boards at semi- 
monthly intervals and replaced by new blocks numbered consecutively. The 
inspection of several entire boards at the close of the season of 1922 showed 
clearly a period of cessation of growth and breeding, and since it was neces- 


6 


COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS ‘ft 


sary to replace a number of the 1922 boards on account of their complete 
destruction by borers, a slight change was made in the plan of the boards 
in order to get both a cumulative and a monthly record of borer attack. 


Fic. 1—STANDARD TEST BOARD, 1922 MODEL 


The 1923 model board carried only 7 blocks which were 4 in. x 4 in. x 
6 in. in size. Six of these blocks were numbered consecutively, and the 
seventh, which was placed in the center of the board, was unnumbered 
(Fig. 2). The lowest numbered block on the board, together with the un- 
numbered center block, was removed monthly, the numbered block being 


8 BIOLOGY 


replaced by another numbered block, and the center block by an unnumbered 
one. In this way, one block showed the cumulative attack for the period of 
immersion, from one to six months for the first six months, and for six 
months thereafter, and the other block showed the attack which had taken 
place during the current month. This system was very successful. 

The suggestion that the occurrence of a large number of stunted forms 
of shipworms found in the 2 in, x 4 in. x 5 in. blocks resulting from the 
crowded conditions could be avoided by the use of larger blocks was the 
reason for the increase in the size of the blocks on the 1923 model board. 
The larger blocks gave little better results than the smaller ones, since the 
crowding persisted owing to the concentration of the shipworms in small 
areas on many of the blocks and the consequent production of the same 
stunted forms which had been found in the smaller blocks. Stunted forms 
will occur wherever the shipworms are badly crowded, and this crowding 
may occur when there is ample room for development, and where one would 
think that it might be avoided. 

It was realized that the resources available would not permit the test 
board survey system to include all points on the coast where borers might 
be expected, but that it would be necessary to confine the investigation to 
the more important harbors where the possible damage would be the most 
serious from an economic standpoint. By a series of reports from the var- 
ious governmental agencies, the railroads, municipalities and other owners 
of waterfront properties, a fairly accurate idea of the history of borer 
attacks was obtained and a general plan was formed for the distribution 
of the test boards. Since the placing and maintenance of the boards was a 
contributed service, it was not always practicable to locate boards at the 
most desirable points, but generally this could be done. 

In all, 302 test boards were in service some or all of the time between 
May, 1922, and November, 1923, located in continental and insular harbors 
of the United States (Fig. 3) and with the assistance of the Bermuda Bio- 
logical Board this Committee was able, by paying part of the expenses, to 
have four of these boards maintained in Bermudian harbors. A similar 
program of investigation has also been extended along the eastern coast of 
Canada by a test board system maintained entirely under the direction of 
the Biological Board of Canada. 

The test boards of this committee were placed, maintained, and the blocks 
removed and sent to the laboratories, by the following agencies: 


AYMY oes ce eb swine ve de we o's ce inter omen en 13 
IE: a! re I 48 
Bureau of Lighthouses ........../.....55 «sn see ea 12 
Coast Guard . 22.8. .0 65. oa oe ce ee 0) ols aemnenn re 
Railroads  ..... 60.6.0... eee Oe ale 89 
Harbor Boards, State and Municipal Bodies.............. 32 
Industries... . 0.05... eee ee ce eee Oe 38 
Miscellaneous Agencies ....05. 2.02.25 5 ee 

302 


Considering the large number of organizations with employees of all 
grades of responsibility and all working gratuitously, it has been very 
gratifying to see how carefully and regularly the blocks were removed from 
the boards and shipped to the laboratories. The number of failures was 


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COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS 9 


very small. Without such intelligent and efficient cooperation this survey, 
with its extremely valuable results, would have been impossible. 

The test blocks after removal from the boards were wrapped, while still 
wet, in several thicknesses of paper and mailed to the laboratories. It 
was found that the organisms would survive a journey of ten days or more 
and arrive at the laboratory in excellent condition for study. 

The biological studies of the blocks and other specimens from the East 


PEPLACE */ BY"7 ECT 


FZEPLACE UNNUMGERED 
BY ANOTHER ONE NOT 
NUMBERED 


25-F 


CHANGE BLOCWS ON 
/SI OF EACH MONTH 


I 


2 


BRASS OR COPPER 
SCREWS 


Fil 


TEST PIECES 2h4%5 
SHS 


GOARD 1K/2X% 2-8 OR 
RK/2X O-F 


WEIGH T AGOUT SOLGS. 


SHETCH SHOWING TEST FIECES 


WCOALE /‘=/-O" 


COMMITTEE ON 
MALIPINE PILING INVESTIGATIONS 
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNC/L. 
29 WEST 992 STREET, NEW Yorrr 
1923 MODEL 


Fig. 2—STANDARD TEST Boarp, 1923 MopEL 


10 BIOLOGY 


and Gulf Coasts and island harbors, except in the New York District, were 
made by Mr. W. F. Clapp. The committee has paid Mr. Clapp’s expenses, 
but his own exceedingly valuable services have been gratuitous. 


The blocks from the New York District were inspected by Dr. S. I. 
Kornhauser during the summer of 1922, and later by Mr. F. A. Varrelman. 
During their periods of employment Dr. Kornhauser and Mr. Varrelman 
inspected, on the ground, a large amount of timber and piling removed 
from structures, in addition to the test blocks. 


Blocks removed from test boards on the Pacific Coast and the Pacific 
Islands were inspected by Dr. R. C. Miller, under the general direction of 
Dr. C. A: Kofoid, who was furnished laboratory facilities for his work for 
this committee as well as for the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Commit- 
tee by the University of California. Mr. Miller’s services were contributed, 
hut the committee paid a part of his expenses. 


In addition to the regular study of specimens as above indicated, material 
assistance and advice have been given by the staff of the U. S. National 
Museum (Smithsonian Institution), and some identifications have been 
checked by Dr. Calman of the British Museum, and scientists of the Museum 
de l’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, the University of Copenhagen, and other in- 
stitutions. 

Regular reports of test block and timber inspections were exchanged be- 
tween the biologists and the Director’s office, and this information was 
transmitted by that office with equal regularity to those who were main- 
taining the test boards. As a result of the studies coordinated in this way 
the Director was in some cases able to warn wharf owners of attacks on 
their structures which had not been previously suspected. 

Inspections of test boards and structures show conclusively that the test 
board is not an absolutely certain indicator as to the presence of borers. 
If the attack in a given vicinity be heavy, the test board will show it and 
will show that it is heavy (Fig. 4), but if there be only a few borers present, 
they may not appear in the board when they are present in nearby piles. 
Two examples of this may be cited: one, Lehigh Valley Pier A in Jersey 
City, N. J., where a number of specimens of Teredo navalis were found in 
piles, most piles inspected being infested, and no specimens of Teredo were 
found in the test board on the same pier; another example is found at 
Palatka, Fla., where piles were practically destroyed after many years ser- 
vice by Sphaeroma and none were found in the test board. In general, it 
may be said that Sphaeroma was not found in the test boards at several 
locations when it was known to be present. 

A detailed report of the results of the study of the test boards will be 
found in the series of “Harbor Reports” beginning on page 221. 


SPECIAL TESTS 
Shingle Blocks 


On account of the difficulty in obtaining undamaged specimens of the 
molluscan borers from the test blocks, a built-up shingle block was im- 
mersed in connection with most of the 1923 model boards. This block 
was about 6 inches wide, built up to a thickness of 6 inches by placing 
the shingles with the thick and thin ends alternating and bolting the ends 
securely together. As a method of collecting undamaged specimens this 
block was an entire success, but the animals themselves were generally 


SPECIAL TESTS at: 


not normal, being less in diameter and longer than usual. They had no 
difficulty in crossing from one shingle to another, but except in a few cases 
seemed to prefer to stay in one shingle as long as possible. In one or two 
cases they seemed to work freely at right angles to the face of the shingles, 
and were then more nearly normal in shape (Fig. 5). 


Copper Bound Blocks 

The inspection of test blocks showed that the copper and brass numbers 
used on the blocks seemed to prevent the attachment of marine organisms 
in their immediate vicinity, and it therefore seemed possible that a wrapping 
of copper wire or strips might furnish protection to a pile. As an experi- 
ment three blocks known to be heavily infested were removed from the test 
board at Ft. Sumter, Charleston, 8S. C. One of them was wrapped with 
copper wire and one with ‘44-inch copper bands both spaced 44-inch. The 
three blocks were then replaced on the board and left immersed for three 
months longer. 

When these blocks were removed after this three months’ period it was 
found that the copper had slowed up the destruction very appreciably 
(Fig. 6), and that the strips were more effective than the wire. The an- 
imals in both the bound blocks appeared to be dead, while those in the un- 
bound block were many of them alive. On account of this encouraging result, 
eight test boards were prepared by the U. S. District Engineer at Charles- 
ton, S. C., and immersed at Castle Pinckney, where the attack was known 
to be heavy. These blocks were bound with /4-in. copper strips and with 
wire spaced from 1% in. to 214 in., varying by 14 in., with every third block 
unprotected as a control. Seven sets of blocks were mounted on galvanized 
bars and the eighth on a palmetto pole. The blocks from these boards were 
removed periodically as in the case of the standard boards. 

One indication obtained was that palmetto was not entirely immune from 
attack, since both Teredo navalis and species of Martesia were found in the 
palmetto pole carrying the blocks on board No. 8. The specimens of Teredo, 
however, were not numerous, and were small and seemed to be incapable of 
causing serious damage, but those of Martesia seemed to work as freely as 
in other timber. 

These eight boards were immersed at various dates between Feb. 12 
and March 3, 1928. No shipworms appeared on either the control blocks or 
those kound with wire or bands until shortly before July 1; no barnacles* 
were found on the blocks having the copper spaced 1% in., 34 in. and 1 in. 
before this time; and while a few specimens of Limnoria had appeared, no 
serious damage had been done. On the block with the wire or bands spaced 
over 1 in., barnacles were found on nearly all blocks, and the number of 
specimens of Limnoria was much greater than on those with closer spacing. 

The unprotected control blocks removed about September 1 from all eight 
boards were very heavily attacked by Limnoria and were all completely filled 
with shipworms, Bankia gouldi and Teredo navalis. The wire bound blocks 
with spacing from 1 in. to 214 in., inclusive, were about as heavily attacked 
as the control blocks on which there was no copper. The blocks with wire 
spaced 34 in. contained at this time about 50 specimens of Bankia gouldi and 
Teredo navalis, with a comparatively light Limnoria attack. Few of the 
teredine borers exceeded 100 mm. in length, which was less than half that 
of the animals in the control blocks. 


*The barnacles found on these and other test blocks mentioned throughout this report 
were various species of the genus Balanus. 


BIOLOGY 


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13 


SPECIAL TESTS 


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14 BIOLOGY 


The blocks with the wire on %-in, spacing showed still less attack, for 
whereas Limnoria had destroyed the control blocks to a depth of 5 to 10 
mm., the wire-bound blocks contained only about 50 animals. These bound 
‘blocks contained about 20 shipworms, a few of them 100 mm. in length, as 
against several hundred in the control blocks. The copper strips 14-in. wide 
used on half of the blocks were uniformly about twice as efficient as the 
wire with the same spacing. 

It is clearly shown that copper has a protective influence, that strips are 
more effective than wire, and that the protective effect is practically lost 
when the spacing is greater than 34 in. Since complete protection seems to 
require a spacing of less than 14 in. edge to edge for strips % in. in width, 
it is probable that the cost of application would be so great that complete 
copper sheathing would be more economical. 

A test board on which the blocks were wrapped with copper wire and 
14-in. strips arranged in the same manner was immersed at Galveston, 
Tex., on Nov. 11, 1922, by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway. 
The first blocks were removed three months after immersion, but shortly 
afterward the board broke from its moorings and was lost. The period of in- 
activity of the shipworms covered a part of the period of immersion of these 
blocks, so that no definite conclusions can be drawn as to the efficiency 
of this method of protection in Galveston. The few blocks inspected tended 
to confirm the conclusion drawn from the Charleston tests that the ¥% in. 
strips are considerably more efficient than the wire. 

A board with blocks similarly protected with copper bands was immersed 
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad at Warren, R. I., on 
Nov. 5, 1922, and removed about one year later. The blocks with a spacing 
of 11% in. and over showed no difference in attack from the unprotected 
blocks and had many Balanus on them, but those with a spacing of 1 in. or 
less carried no encrusting organisms. Those blocks with a spacing of % in. 
contained about 25 specimens of Teredo navalis with a maximum length of 
about 4 in. against 100 to 200 animals of about the same length in the blocks 
with wider spacing of the bands. The animals found in the blocks with 
14 in. spacing, however, all entered from the ends of the blocks which were 
unprotected. 

This would seem to indicate that 4% in. spacing of % in. wide copper 
bands will probably give protection in these waters. 

A similar board with the blocks bound with copper-coated iron wire was 
immersed for the same period, but no difference in the attack could be found 
in the blocks with various wire spacings and the control blocks which had no 
wire on them. 

A similar experiment with copper strips was made at Pearl Harbor. The 
control block was very heavily attacked by Limnoria, and its interior was 
filled with Teredo parksi with a probable maximum length of about 170 mm. 
The block was covered with Bryozoa (schizoporella) and Moina wherever 
Limnoria had left a place for them. These blocks were 2 x 4 x 8 inches, 
and one set of them was protected by 14-in. strips spaced 2 in. apart, 
and another by strips of the same width spaced 1 in. No narrower spacing 
was used. The board was immersed June 1, 1923, and removed Feb. 1, 1924. 

There were three ‘blocks with copper on 2-in. spacing. Encrusting organ- 
isms, including barnacles, did not show a heavy deposit. Limnoria had 
dug into the surface in portions of the block, but in none of the three blocks 
examined was the damage nearly as heavy as with the control block. The 


SPECIAL TESTS 15 


number of Teredo burrows varied from 6 to 25, with a length slightly less 
than that of the animals in the control blocks. A block with 114-in. spac- 
ing showed very similar results. While the Limnoria had done considerable 
damage and had worked directly under the copper strips, the area attacked 
and the depth of penetration was not so great as in the control block. The 


Fic. 6—TrEstTs of COPPER WIRE AND BANDS, CHARLESTON, S. C. 
BoARD SUBMERGED SEPTEMBER 6, 1922 


Upper Fig.—Block 14 Removed February 16, 1923 
Lower Figs.—Block 13 (Bands) and 15 (Wire), Metal Placed December 26, 1922; 
Blocks Removed February 16, 1923 


16 BIOLOGY 


block with 1-in. spacing showed about the same result with encrusting 
organisms, with the exception of tube worms, of which there seemed to be 
many more on this block than on any of the others. The Limnoria and 
Teredo attack was similar to that in the other protected blocks, and the 
extent of damage did not vary greatly from them. 


It would therefore appear that the copper strips 1 in. apart, while they 
caused a much less intense attack, did not give ultimate protection. 


European reports indicated that there was a strong probability that wrap- 
ping with flat steel would give as good protection as the system of “scupper 
nailing,’ which had been used with considerable success in Dutch and 
Scandinavian harbors. In order to test this, boards were prepared in the 
same way as those with copper strips and with the same variation in the 
spacing. The boards were made and immersed by the Seaboard Air Line 
at Charleston, 8. C., and by the Navy at St. Thomas, VY. I., and Coco 
Solo, C. Z. 


The special test board at Coco Solo was immersed May 9, 1923, and 
removed Oct. 9, 1928. Several series of blocks were also removed at in- 
tervals during this period. 


The blocks protected by bands or wire spaced over 34 in. showed that 
the iron had little or no effect on either Limnoria or teredine borers, and 
with less distance between the wire or bands the blocks were heavily at- 
tacked. Some blocks with bands at % in. spacing which were heavily at- 
tacked contained, after three months immersion, a number of shipworms of 
comparatively small size and all dead with the burrows filled with iron rust. 


This test indicates that at Coco Solo where there are many species of 
shipworms and the attack is very heavy, iron wire gives little or no pro- 
tection and iron bands very little, even when spaced only % in. The 
corrosion of the metal is very rapid and the effect of the iron would probably 
be lost in a comparatively short time. 


The Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company at Newport 
News, Va., installed 13 ‘boards, each carrying blocks cut from sap and heart 
timber. These boards were heavily galvanized plates set in guides at 
various angles with the current and at various depths in order to show 
variation in the attack. (Fig. 7). 

There proved to be no difference in the attack on heart and sap wood. 

These tests were installed about Feb. 1, 1923, and none of them showed 
attack before June 15. The blocks removed on that date showed some 
barnacles and Bryozoa, except those within the tidal range on which there 
was a deposit of oil. On July 2 the blocks showed an increase in the number 
and size of encrusting organisms, but no borers, while the blocks removed 
on July 16, all but two of them located close to low water, contained a few 
specimens of Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldi, none exceeding 30 mm. in 
length. 

The Aug. 1 blocks all showed much heavier attack and rapid growth, 
many of the blocks containing animals 150 mm. long. 

The later blocks showed such irregularities in the intensity of attack 
that no conclusions can be drawn as to the effect of depth or direction of 
current. There was no attack on the blocks appreciably above mean low 
water. 

In addition to these experiments long time tests have been started in the 
following locations: 


Fic. 


SPECIAL TESTS 


7—TYPE or TEST BoarD USED BY THE NEWPORT NEWS 
& Dry Dock Co., NEwPort NEwS, VA. 


SHIPBUILDING 


Alf 


18 BIOLOGY 


The Bureau of Lighthouses placed one test pile sheathed with monel 
metal at the Cat Island Light Station, Fla., on Feb. 21, 1928, and one 
sheathed with copper on Jan. 16, 1923. Two piles similarly protected were 
installed at the Key West, Fla., Depot Wharf on May 23, 1923. (See Harbor 
Report ‘‘Key West’’). 

The “scupper nailing” method is being tested by the Seaboard Air Line 
with a test piece 4 in. x 4in. x 5 ft., placed at Tampa, Fla., June 7, 19238. (See 
Harbor Report ‘‘Mississippi River to Key West’), and by the Bureau of 
Yards and Docks, Navy Department at Pearl Harbor, H. I., where both 
steel and copper nails were used (see Harbor Report “Pacific Islands’’). 

The Grand Trunk Railway has several piles in its wharf at Portland, Me., 
protected by 1% in. wide copper strips spaced 1 in. apart (see Harbor Report 
“Maine Coast’). 

Test pieces of manbarklak and angelique furnished by the Colonial Gov- 
ernment of Dutch Guiana have been installed as follows: 


LOCATION DATE PLACED AGENCY PLACING 
Fall River, Mass. July 17, 1923 New York, New Haven & Hart- 
ford R.R. 
Galveston, Tex. July 11, 1923 Southern Pacific Ry. 
Newport News, Va. July 10, 1928 Newport News Shipbuilding & 
Dry Dock Co. 
*St. Augustine, Fla. July 31, 1923 Florida East Coast Ry. 
**Key West, Fla. Aug. 38, 1923 Florida East Coast Ry. 
**Galveston, Tex. Nov. 11; 1922 oe Topeka & Santa Fe 
y: 


**San Francisco, Cal. Jan. 5, 1923 San Francisco Committee 
*Angelique only. 
**Manbarklak only. 

In addition to manbarklak and angelique, several other tropical timbers 
are being tested by the Panama Canal authorities and the San Francisco 
Committee, and at the time of writing six additional pieces of turpentine 
wood are en route from Australia. 


WATER ANALYSES 


In order to obtain ecological information, water analyses were made at 
the location of as many test boards as possible. Wherever laboratory ser- 
vices could be obtained, determinations were made of salinity, temperature, 
oxygen content and hydrogen ion concentration; where laboratories were not 
available temperature and salinity were recorded, and in one location where 
no better arrangement could be made temperature only was recorded. The 
ideal times for these tests, high and low tide, were impracticable in many 
cases, and the time, as well as the frequency of observations, had to be gov- 
erned by the labor and facilities available. 

In the field laboratories of the Chief Engineer of the Board of Estimate 
and Apportionment of New York City, and in those of the Committee in 
New York, temperatures were read on a thermometer designed for such 
work, salinity was determined by titration with nitrate of silver, oxygen 
content by the method outlined in the Manual of the Public Health Asso- 
ciation, and except in one case the hydrogen ion concentration, by the use 
of the La Motte comparator. The laboratory of the Babcock and Wilcox 
Company at Bayonne, N. J., used the electrical method of determining 
hydrogen ion concentration. 


Fic. 


WATER ANALYSES 


8—SALINOMETER USED FOR 


DETERMINING 


SALINITY 


19 


20 BIOLOGY 


At locations where laboratory facilities were not available, salinity 
and temperature observations were made with a “salinometer” (hydrom- 
eter) designed for the work of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission 
of New York in New York Harbor prior to 1914 (Fig. 8). In some cases 
the Navy Department and others used hydrometers and thermometers 
secured from other sources. Several of the salinometers manufactured in 
New York were calibrated by comparison with results obtained by the 
titration method. Nineteen tests were made, of which two gave the same 
result by both methods, one showed a variation of one part of NaCl per 
1000, with an average variation in the 19 tests of .05 parts of NaCl per 
1000. 

The results of these analyses have been plotted and will be found in 
the “Harbor Report Section” in the reports on the following harbors: 


Boston Harbor—3 locations. 
Warren, R. I.—1 location. 

New York Harbor—10 locations. 
Baltimore Harbor—1 location. 
Beaufort, N. C.—1 location. 
Brunswick, Ga.—2 locations. 
Key West, Fla.—1 location. 
Gulfport, Miss.—1 location. 


Lake Pontchartrain, La.—1 location. 


Galveston Bay, Tex.—2 locations. 
Corpus Christi, Tex.—1 location. 
Guantanamo, Cuba—2 locations. 


Woods Hole, Mass.—1 location. 
Providence, R. I.—1 location. 
Norfolk, Va.—4 locations. 
Charleston, S. C.—1 location. 
Jacksonville, Fla.—1 location. 
Pensacola, Fla.—1 location. 
Mobile, Ala.—1 location. 

Port Eads, La.—1 location. 
Port Aransas, Tex.—1 location. 
Coco Solo, C. Z.—1 location. 
Port au Prince, Haiti—1 location. 
Puget Sound, Wn.—4 locations. 


San Francisco Bay—8 locations (Reports—S. F. Com.) 


In addition to the graphs a tabulated statement of salinities and tem- 
peratures furnished by the Coast and Geodetic Survey will be found in the 
report on Ketchikan, Alaska, and a graph of such results furnished by the 
Biological laboratory of the Department of Marine and Fisheries of the 
Dominion of Canada will be found with the brief report on conditions in 
those waters. A few analyses made by the laboratory of the Department of 
Health will be found in the report on the harbor of San Juan, P. R. 

Except for the analyses made by the chemist employed by the Committee 
in New York all this work was done without cost to the Committee by the 
various organizations indicated on the graphs. This work has added greatly 
to the valuable data collected in the course of the investigation, and the 
gratitude of all those interested should be extended to all the organizations 
contributing this work. 


CHAPTER III 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


CRUSTACEA 


Three genera of this class are represented among the wood boring animals 
of economic importance, Limnoria, Chelura and Sphaeroma. The method 
of attack and the general effect on the timber is similar. 


Limnoria lignorum Rathke (Fig. 9), frequently known as the “Gribble,” 
has ‘been known as a wood destroyer for over 100 years. It was originally 
identified in Norway in 1799 and caused Robert Stevenson considerable 
trouble in the construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse in 1814. 


Limnoria lignorum resembles an ordinary woodlouse in appearance and 
belongs, like the woodlouse, to the order of Crustacea known as Isopoda. 
The body of this animal is from 4% to % in. in length with a width about 
one-third its length. It is slipper shaped and has a small head and segmented 
body ending in abroad tail plate which can be tilted up to close the burrow 
against intruders. 


The head bears a pair of eyes, two pairs of short feelers or antennae, 
and on the under side four pairs of mouth parts, including a pair of strong 
horny tipped mandibles with which most of the boring is done. 


There are seven pairs of legs with sharp hooked claws which enable the 
animal to cling to the wood and to move in its burrow or on the surface of 
the wood. The gills, which are in constant movement causing a steady 
renewal of the water for respiration, are flat membranous plates. When 
the animal is in the water, these plates furnish the motive power for swim- 
ming. The animal can contract its body so as to curl itself up into the 
form of a ball. 


The sexes are separate and fertilization is internal. The eggs, which have 
a diameter of about one-fourth that of the body of the female, are carried 
in a brood pouch between the legs on the underside of the female. The 
number of eggs in a single brood is seldom less than six, or more than 
seventeen. The young when hatched differ only in size from the adults and 
are ready to bore at once, and they begin their work near the parent, so 
that an infestation generally spreads slowly from a center. A single square 
inch of timber may contain 300 to 400 animals of all ages. 


Precise data as to the breeding season or temperature requirements for 
breeding are generally lacking. Limnoria is found apparently working 
at all seasons of the year, and on account of its wide distribution in water 
with great ranges of temperature it is probable that it has a very consider- 
able power of adaptation. Dr. R. E. Coker found in his studies at Beaufort, 
N. C., that the water temperature did not fall below 16°C. until Nov. 20, 
1922, but that there had been occasional readings as low as 14°C. before that 
time (see temperature chart Beaufort, N. C., Report page 305). No eggs 
were found after Oct. 26, at which time the temperature first reached 14°C. 
By April 14, 1928, when the mean temperature had risen to 16°C. and the 
minimum above 14° C., a substantial proportion of the large specimens of 
Limnoria were gravid. 


21 


ae ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Dr. Coker’s studies also indicated that the period of incubation was about 
two weeks at Beaufort in the spring of 1928, and that the period when no 


breeding occurred was about four months from about the middle of Decem- 
ber to the middle of April. 


Fie. I—Limnoria lignorum (RATHKE) 
1-4—-Young stages. 6, 7 and 9—Females with eggs. Magnified 11 diameters 


CRUSTACEA Da 


The fact that Limnoria is very active at the North Cape in Europe and 
in Alaskan waters, where the temperature seldom rises as high as 14° C., 
indicates that the influence of a specific temperature varies with the locality. 

Limnoria destroys timber by gnawing interlacing branching burrows into 
the surface of the wood. The burrows are generally not more than 1/20 
in. in diameter and are of the same size throughout their depth. They 
generally follow the softer spring wood between the harder layers of autumn 
growth, but their burrows are so numerous that the surface layers of tim- 
bers are rapidly destroyed. 

Limnoria is particularly dangerous in its attack on creosoted timber. 
It frequently gains entrance at a knot, abrasion, or other point of thin treat- 
ment and works in until it reaches the untreated center of the stick. This 
portion of the timber is promptly destroyed and the outer treated shell left 
intact. 

Limnoria is sometimes found above normal high tide, but generally the 
greatest intensity of attack is between a level just below low tide and about 
half tide. The attack may ‘be heavy from this level to the mud line, and 
some cases are recorded where piles were entirely cut off at the mud line 
and showed little evidence of attack within the tidal range. 


Fie. 10 


1. Chelura terebrans, male, from Charleston, S. C., dorsal view. X 11. 
2. Lateral view of same. xX 11. 
3 and 4. Dorsal and ventral views of female Chelura. X 5. 


24 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Limnoria lignorum is probably of wider distribution than any other single 
species of wood borer. It is reported in the east Atlantic from the North 
Cape to Cape Town, and on the American coasts it extends from the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence to the Falkland Islands and from Alaska southward. 


Limnoria has been found on the test boards and specimens examined by 
the biologists of the Committee at the following points: 


Lubec, Maine. 

Cutler, Maine. 

Crabtree Ledge, Maine. 

Portland, Maine. 

York Harbor, Maine. 

Portsmouth, N. H. 

Salem, Mass. 

Lynn, Mass. 

Boston, Mass. 

Provincetown, Mass. 

New Bedford, Mass. 

Newport, R. I. 

Dutch Harbor Island, R. I. 

Warren, R. I. 

Mystic, Conn. 

New London, Conn. 

New Haven, Conn. 

Greenpoint, N. Y. 

New York Harbor, East River. 

New York Harbor, Lower Hudson 
River 

New York Bay 

Jamaica Bay, N. Y. 

Fire Island, N. Y. 

Beach Haven, N tos 

Barnegat City, N. J. 

Point Pleasant, N. J. 

Atlantic City, N. J. 

Norfolk, Va. 

Beaufort, N. C. 

Charleston, S. C. 

Brunswick, Ga. 

Fernandina, Fla. 

Channel Five, Fla. 

Key West, Fla. 

St. George, Bermuda. 

Ireland Island, Bermuda. 


Bars Bay, Bermuda. 
Agars Island, Bermuda. 
Tampa Bay, Fla. 
Cedar Key, Fla. 

St. Andrews, Fla. 
Pensacola, Fla. 
Gulfport, Miss. 
Galveston Bay, Tex. 
Aransas Pass, Tex. 
Corpus Christi, Tex. 
Pt. Isabel, Tex. 
Fajardo, Porto Rico. 
San Juan, Porto Rico. 
Guantanamo, Cuba. 
Port au Prince, Haiti. 
Puerto Plata, Santo Domingo. 
St. Thomas, V. I. 
Christiansted, V. I. 
Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 
Mazatlan, Mexico. . 
Topolobampo, Mexico. 
Guaymas, Mexico. 

San Diego, Cal. 

Long Beach, Cal. 

Los Angeles, Cal. 
San Francisco, Cal. 
Puget Sound, Wash. 
Ketchikan, Alaska. 
Petersburg, Alaska. 
Juneau, Alaska. 
Sitka, Alaska. 
Seward, Alaska. 
Kodiak, Alaska. 
Dutch Harbor, Alaska. 
Honolulu, T. H. 

Pearl Harbor, T. H. 
Nawiliwili, T. H. 


Limnoria andrewsi (Plates I, II) Calman was described from Christmas 
Island, in the South Pacific, in 1910. It is in general a smaller and some- 
what less destructive species than Limnoria lignorum, from which it can be 
distinguished only by the specialist. Limnoria andrewsi takes the place of 
Limnoria lignorum in the blocks from Samoa, and occurs with the latter spe- 
cies in the blocks from Honolulu Harbor. 


The limits of salinity and pollution within which the Limnoria can live 
have not been definitely determined. They, of course, live in water of 
normal salinity, and in many harbors have been found in highly polluted 
water. They have not been found in test blocks or specimens at any point 
at which salinity records are available where the salinity fell below fifteen 
parts per thousand for periods of considerable length, though in one location 
in Norfolk harbor it reached as low as five parts per thousand once for a 
few days. 


A fairly heavy attack of Limnoria occurred at the Standard Oil piers at 


CRUSTACEA 25 


Bayonne, N. J., where the dissolved oxygen content varied from 15 per cent 
to 70 per cent, with a general average of between 30 per cent and 40 per 
cent, and a hydrogen ion concentration varying from 7.00 to 8.8, with a 
general average of about 7.4 (New York Harbor Report, Fig. 69). 


Chelura terebrans Philippi (Fig. 10), described in 1839, is a member of 
the order Amphipoda, which includes among other forms the ordinary 
“sand hoppers.” It is slightly larger than Limnoria, and the body at the 
segmental joints, and also the antennae and the legs, are heavily feathered 
with long hairs. 


It can also be readily distinguished from Limnoria by its larger and 
stronger antennae, by the pair of large tail appendages (uropods) at the 
posterior end of the body, and by the long spine projecting from the middle 
of the ‘back. 


Chelura works with Limnoria and in much the same manner, though the 
galleries which it bores are slightly larger. 


Chelura is reported as a wood destroyer on the European coasts from 
Norway to the Black Sea, and on the Atlantic coast of North America, but 
it has been found in the test blocks and specimens collected by this Commit- 
tee from Atlantic and Pacific harbors only at Ireland Island, Bermuda. It 
does not therefore appear to be of much economic importance in American 
waters. i 


Chelura insulae (Plates I, II) Calman, like Limnoria andrewsi, was de- 
scribed from Christmas Island in 1910. It can be distinguished from Chelura 
terebrans by the possession of longer antennae and much larger anterior 
claws or gnathopods, and reduction of the long spine mentioned above as 
characteristic of Chelura terebrans to a mere tubercle. Chelura insulae oc- 
curs in great numbers in the blocks from Tutuila, and occasionally in those 
from Honolulu Harbor. The damage is secondary to that occasioned by 
Limnoria. 

Sphaeroma quadridentum Say 

Sphaeroma destructor Richardson 

Sphaeroma pentadon Richardson (Fig. 11.) 


Fic. 11—Dorsa, LATERAL, AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF Sphaeroma pentadon 
RICHARDSON 


26 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


One specimen of the first named species was found in a test block from 
Beaufort; specimens of Sphaeroma destructor came from certain East 
Coast harbors, and of Sphaeroma pentadon from the West Coast. 

The genus Sphaeroma is allied to Limnoria which it closely resembles in 
structure. The color of the species mentioned is dark olive to slightly red- 
dish brown, frequently with lighter colored yellowish blotches on the back. 
They are considerably larger than Limnoria lignorum, sometimes reaching 
a size of 1% in. in length and 4 in. in width. While their burrows are much 
larger than those of Limnoria lignorum, the animals themselves are not so 
numerous or so destructive. 

Little or nothing is known of the development or breeding habits of the 
species of this genus, beyond the fact that the eggs are carried on the 
abdomen of the female as in the case of Limnoria. Since some species of 
Sphaeroma are not thought to bore wood, but only mud and soft rock, it is 
not probable that wood forms any important part in the food of the animal. 

The species of Sphaeroma work generally between high and low tide, but 
may sometimes be found doing considerable damage at the mud line. Piles - 
in a structure at Palatka, Fla., have been entirely cut off at the mud line 
by these animals (Fig. 12). This structure is over 70 miles from the ocean, 
and the water is supposed to be absolutely fresh, and several specimens of 
the same species (Sphaeroma destructor) have been found in test blocks at 
Provincetown, Mass., in water of full salinity. 

The heaviest Sphaeroma attacks are reported from the St. Johns River, 
Fla., and Lake Pontchartrain, La., where the water is fresh or nearly so 
(see Salinity Chart Lake Pontchartrain Fig. 118), but these animals have 
also been found in the course of the work of this Committee at the following 
locations: 

Sphaeroma quadridentum 


Beaufort, N.C. 
Sphaeroma destructor 


Provincetown, Mass. Jacksonville, Fla. 
Palatka, Fla. Tampa Bay, Fla. 
Pass Manchac, La. Lake Pontchartrain, La. 


Port Eads, La. 
; Sphaeroma pentadon 
San Francisco Bay, Cal. 


This last species is reported to exist along the Pacific Coast as far as Alaska 
but has been found in none of the test boards or specimens of timber 
outside of San Francisco Bay. These animals do not seem to attack the 
test boards as freely as other species of borers, even when they are present 
in timber in considerable numbers. They exercise a preference for very 
soft wood, or that already bored by Teredo, and hence: do not constitute a 
serious economic problem. 

A closely related crustacean, H'xosphaeroma oregonensis, is reported to be 
a timber borer by the Marine Biological Laboratory of the Bureau of Fish- 
eries of Canada at Departure Bay, Vancouver Island. 


MOLLUSCA. 


The most important genera of this family within the territory belonging 
to the United States are the Teredo, Bankia and Martesia, all three bivalves 
distantly related to the clam. 


gens 


CRUSTACEA 


Fic. 12—SEecTIoN or PILE rrom FLorRIDA East Coast Ry. BripGe, St. JOHNS 
RIVER; PALATKA, FLA. Sphaeroma ATTACK—17 YEARS’ SERVICE. 


27 


28 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


The method of attack and general appearance of the first two genera are 
similar (Fig. 18). The two valves of the shell function as a highly specialized 
boring mechanism; the long slimy worm-like body fills the burrow, which 
is lined with a calcareous coating, and both Teredo and Bankia are supplied 
with very long siphons and with so-called “pallets.” 


Fig. 183—xX-RAyY PHOTOGRAPH OF TIMBER ATTACKED BY TEREDINE BORERS 


Martesia (Fig. 14) more nearly resembles a clam in structure. The 
boring is done with the shells, as in the case of Bankia and Teredo, but 
the body of the animal is wholly enclosed within the shell instead of being 
drawn out into an elongated, worm-like form as in the other two genera. 
The borings made by Martesia are generally not over 24% in, in length nor 
over an inch in diameter, while some species of Bankia are reported to 
reach a length of between 3 and 4 ft. with a diameter only slightly less than 
Isin: 

Martesia as well as Teredo and Bankia is equipped with a pair of 
siphons, one incurrent, the other excurrent. These siphons are muscular 
tubes of a length and appearance differing in the different species but 
performing the same functions for all of them. The siphons project into 
the water through the minute hole through which the animal entered the 
wood. By means of millions of microscopic hair-like structures (cilia), 
always beating in one direction, a current of water is drawn through the 
incurrent siphon and expelled through the excurrent. The water in its course 
through the body of the animal passes through the gills, as in other bivalve 
mollusks, where it gives up its oxygen to the blood, while the food materials 
are filtered out and carried to the mouth. A large part of the food of these 


29 


MOLLUSCA 


MOOU NI svjoyd AGNV dOOM NI HMsaJ4V]J[—FL “DI 


ee 


30 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


wood-boring Mollusca probably consists of the fine organic detritus and 
the microscopic plants and animals in the water, though recent investiga- 
tions indicate that the wood fragments resulting from the boring may 
also be utilized as food. The water flowing out through the excurrent siphon 
carries with it the body wastes and the wood fragments rasped off by the 
shells. 

When the animals are disturbed or the water conditions are for any 
reason unsatisfactory the siphons are retracted within the burrow. 

The pallets are calcareous organs. possessed by Teredo and Bankia but not 
by Martesia; they are conical, but aside from this common feature there is 
great variation in their shape and structure. When the siphons are extended 
the pallets are retracted, and when the siphons are retracted the pallets are 
pushed back toward the outside of the timber, tightly closing the entrance 
hole and protecting the animal within from the entrance of water of an un- 
satisfactory quality and from the attack of enemies. 

The difference between the pallets of the two genera furnishes the easiest 
means of identification. The pallets of Teredo have various forms, depend- 
ing on the species, but in all cases they consist of a stalk and spade or paddle- 
shaped blade convex on the outer and concave on the inner surface, while 
the pallets of Bankia (Fig. 15), also of shapes varying with the species, 
consist of the stalk and a segmented blade. The pallets of Bankia are gen- 
erally much larger than those of Teredo. 

Aside from a difference in the method of fertilization, the breeding habits 
and the life history of the various species are similar. In some species the 
spermatozoa are drawn in through the incurrent siphon and the eggs fer- 
tilized within the female, and in others the eggs are ejected through the 
excurrent siphon as the spermatozoa are, and the two meet in the water. 
The development into free swimming larvae of those species breeding by 
the latter method takes place in a few hours after fertilization, and in the 
case of those species in which the fertilization takes place in the gills of 
the female the larvae are ejected in the free swimming state, but it is 
probable that the development of the larva is slower than when fertilization 
takes place in the water. 

From this point, the development of the animals is practically the same 
in the two genera. The larva has a bivalve shell into which the whole animal 
may be withdrawn for protection; a large swimming organ, the velum, by 
means of which it swims freely in the water; a long powerful foot by means 
of which it crawls actively over surfaces, and an internal organization like 
that of other larvae of the same group (Lamellibranchs, or bivalves). 

The length of time between the commencement of larval development and 
the time when it is ready to attach itself to the timber and commence boring 
is supposed to be about 30 days. 

Sigerfoos states as follows (Bull. of the Bureau of Fisheries X XVII, 
1907) pAlSsje 


“In association with their character of free development in the water 
the eggs of the shipworm are very small and very numerous. While they 
vary somewhat in size, they have an average diameter of somewhat less 
than 1/20 mm. (1/500 inch). Very large shipworms may lay great num- 
bers of eggs at one time. In one case I estimated the number laid by a 
large female Teredo dilatata to be one hundred millions.” 


In describing the method of attachment of the larva, Sigerfoos states 
as follows: 


MOLLUSCA 


Fig. 15—SprEcIMENS oF Bankia REMOVED FROM BURROWS WITH SECTIONS OF 
THE BURROW CASINGS. 


ol 


32 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


“Throughout the summer (or at least from May till the middle of 
August) at Beaufort, if one examines fairly clean, unprotected wooden 
structures submerged in the water, very small bivalves will be found crawl- 
ing actively over the surfaces. These are very minute and are easily recog- 
nized as shipworm larvae that have just settled upon the wood. The larva 
moves rapidly in search of a favorable place for attachment, and this is 
usually in some minute depression or crevice in the wood, though it may 
become attached to perfectly smooth surfaces. It seems to possess no organ 
of special sense for the purpose, and yet it is able to determine what places 
are favorable for its future life and to avoid those which are not. Once 
it has chosen a point for attachment it throws out a single long byssus 
thread, thus securing itself to the surface of the wood, and very soon loses 
its velum, so that it can no longer lead a free-swimming life. Once attached, 
the larva begins to clear away a place for its burrow by scraping away 
the surface of the wood with the ventral edges of its shell valves. Such 
small particles of wood and other substances as are thus collected are 
cemented together over the larva so as to form a sort of conical covering 
for protection. This formed, the further transformation of the larva into 
the small shipworm begins and progresses rapidly. The foot becomes a 
pestle-shaped organ which assists the shell in burrowing. The shell valves 
lose their power of opening at the ventral side and, by the development of 
knobs on the ventral and dorsal portions of both valves, are able to swing 
upon each other at right angles to the former direction. Meanwhile, because 
of the rapid growth of the valves on their ventral edges, the shell gapes 
at both anterior and posterior ends, for the protrusion of the foot in front 
and the siphons (and later the body) behind; and on the external surface 
of the valves at the anterior edges has been formed the first row of the 
small teeth which at this and later stages are the mechanical agents by 
which the animal bores into the wood. This transformation has taken 
place within two days from the time the larva has settled, and afterward 
the animal rapidly becomes an elongate shipworm, enlarging its burrow 
in the wood as it increases in size. 

“The shipworm in its larval stages develops slowly, but once in the 
wood it grows with remarkable rapidity. During its free life most of its 
energies are devoted to active locomotion and development; after attach- 
ment it leads a protected sedentary life and its growth is correspondingly 
rapid. The newly attached larva is somewhat less than 0.25 mm. long. 
In 12 days it has attained a length of about 3 mm.; 16 days, 6 mm.; 
20 days, 11 mm.; 380 days, 63 mm., and 36 days, 100 mm. It is thus seen 
that within two weeks from the time it has settled, the shipworm has 
increased hundreds of times in volume, and in five weeks thousands of 
times. Within two weeks it has developed its characteristic form. Even 
in a month specimens may contain ripe sexual elements, though normally 
these seem to be retained till larger quantities of spermatozoa and eggs are 
stored for extrusion at one time. I shall describe later what appears to 
be a change of sex from males to females, the male sex being developed 
in young specimens. I have found males four weeks old gorged with ripe 
spermatozoa, and in every way sexually mature. 

“The ages of larger specimens I have been able only to estimate from 
the time the piles and other wooden structures from which they were taken 
had been in the water. In one case I took specimens of Teredo dilatata 
4 feet long and an inch in diameter at the anterior end, from piles that had 
been in the water less than two years. This was in July, and in this case 
it seems the worms had entered the wood not earlier than the spring of the 
preceding year, and hence were little, if any, over a year old.” 


Teredo 


Animals of this genus are found in all parts of the world, and the 
various species are reported to vary in length from 6 or 8 in. to 6 ft. 
In general the young develop within the female, and are extruded as free 
swimming larvae. 


MOLLUSCA 33 


The capacity of the various species for destruction depends on the num- 
ber of larvae per parent which survive, and the size to which the animals 
may grow. The number of larvae which survive in a given location is 
roughly proportional to the number carried by the adult female, and there- 
fore, taken in connection with the size of the animals, an examination of the 
specimens gives a very fair approximation as to the potential destructive- 
ness of the species. 


Teredo (Teredo) navalis Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1758, p. 651. 


This species is probably the most widely distributed as well as one of 
the most destructive. It is reported to be present in salt water harbors in 
Kurope from the North Cape to Italy, and perhaps less credibly as far east 
as the Black Sea. 


The longest specimen found in the course of these investigations was 
20 in. in length, found at Oakland, Cal., and the longest on the Atlantic 
Coast, found at Portsmouth, N. H., had a tube over 12 in. long with both 
ends eaten away by Limnoria. 


Specimens of this species have been found in test blocks and timber from 
the harbors listed below, and a statement as to the degree of activity of 
this species in the various harbors will be found in the Harbor Reports: 


Portsmouth, N. H. 
Provincetown, Mass. 
Newport, R. I. 

Fall River, Mass. 


Fires island, N.Y. 
Point O’Woods, N. Y. 
Point Pleasant, N. J. 
Beach Haven, N. J. 


Warren, R. I. Barnegat City, N. J. 
Providence, R. I. Atlantic City, N. J. 
Mystic, Conn. Cape May, N. J. 
New London, Conn. Newport News, Va. 
Guilford, Conn. Norfolk, Va. 
Westport, Conn. Beaufort, N. C. 
South Norwalk, Conn. Charleston, S. C. 
Fishers Island, N. Y. Savannah, Ga. 
New York Harbor, East River Brunswick, Ga. 
New York Harbor, Lower Hudson’ Fernandina, Fla. 
River. Tampa, Fla. 
New York Bay. St. Petersburg, Fla. 


Jamaica Bay, N.Y. San Francisco, Cal. 


Teredo (Teredo) parksi Bartsch (Plate III, Figs. 9-18). Proc. Biol. Soc. 
Washington, v. 34, p. 25-32. 


The following is quoted from Dr. R. C. Miller’s paper entitled ‘Wood 
Boring Mollusks From The Hawaiian, Samoan and Philippine Islands” (Cf. 
University of California Publications in Zoology, v. 26). 


This species was described by Bartsch (1921) from piling in Pearl Harbor. 
The shell is characterized by a broader anterior lobe and a consistently 
small auricle, characters which appear to exhibit less variability in this 
species than in most others. The pallets are readily distinguished by the 
long stalk and short, deeply excavated blade which is covered the greater 
part of its length by a dark epidermis. The blade is usually more deeply 
excavated on the outer than on the inner face, a character which is most 
accentuated in the Samoan specimens. The latter tend also to have more 
regularly shaped, straight-sided pallets. These characters, however, appear 
too variable to be of systematic importance. It is possible that further 
study may indicate a separate category for the Samoan specimens, but the 
material now at hand does not warrant such a step. ; 

Teredo parksi appears to be the dominant species in the islands, being 
present in the test blocks from all localities except Nawiliwili. The heaviest 
attack by this species occurred in Pearl Harbor. Blocks submerged here 


34 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


September 1 showed considerable surface attack at the end of the month, 
and by the end of the second month a length of 8 cm. had been attained by 
the largest specimens. At the end of five months the blocks were thoroughly 
honeycombed and beginning to crumble as a result of the combined attack 
of Teredo and Limnoria. The rate of growth under normal conditions at 
this locality appears to be from 3 to 5 cm. a month during the first five 
months, at the end of which time the blocks were usually so crowded as to 
hinder or stop further growth. A burrow 18.5 cm. in length occurred in a 
block submerged five months at the United States Navy Coaling Plant, and 
a burrow 22.5 em. long was found in a block submerged six months at 
Kuahua Island, these being the maximum lengths recorded. 

This species is incubatory, and in Samoan waters becomes sexually mature 
within a few weeks after entering the wood. Specimens containing well 
developed larvae in the gills were found in blocks submerged only two 
months at Tutuila. Potts (1923) reports that rafts in the water only 
twenty-four days in Pago Pago Harbor contained shipworms which were 
producing free-swimming larvae; it is probable, although not certain, that 
he was dealing with this species. In Pearl Harbor Teredo parksi appears 
to mature more slowly and to reach a larger size, the difference doubtless 
being due to temperature conditions. 

In Samoa Teredo parksi appears to breed uninterruptedly throughout the 
year, but in Hawaii the breeding activity, as indicated by settlement of 
larvae, reaches a maximum in August, September, and October, pro- 
gressively decreases from November to March, and reaches a minimum, 
possibly ceasing altogether, in April. 


Teredo furcillatus Miller (Plate IV, Figs. 19-23). Univ. Calif. Publ. 
Zool., v. 26. 


Shell with the anterior lobe shorter and narrower than in Teredo parksi, 
and the auricle decidedly longer and broader. The shell is less highly 
polished and transparent, and the ridges of the anterior median area are 
more coarsely denticulated than in T. parksi. 

Pallets with the stem long and the blade small, variable in shape, the 
distal portion deeply excavated on the outer and usually also on the inner 
face, athough the latter in some cases is only slightly notched. The most 
distinctive feature of the pallets is the absence of a dark periostracum, 
the distal portion of the blade being either light yellowish or perfectly white. 
The name is suggested by the resemblance of the pallets to a small two- 
tined fork (Latin furcilla). 

The measurements of the type are: shell, height, 3.8 mm.; length, 3.4 
mm.; pallets, length of blade, 1.7 mm.; width of blade, 1 mm.; length of 
stalk, 2 mm. The type, from Tutuila, Samoa, has been placed in the 
Museum of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, as No. 1729. 
Paratypes have been placed in the collections of the Department of Zoology, 
University of California, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and the United States National Museum. 

Teredo furcillatus has occurred in limited numbers in the blocks from 
Tutuila and Honolulu Harbor. The longest burrow recorded was 6.7 cm. 
The species does not appear to be of much economic importance. 


Teredo affinis Deshayes (Plate V. Figs. 29-33). Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 


sp Pace 


Shell similar to that of Teredo furcillatus, but with the anterior lobe in 
general narrower and the auricle broader, differences which have been 
fairly constant in all the specimens examined. 

Pallets with a long, slender stalk; blade consisting of a short, urn-shaped, 
calcareous base, surmounted by a dark brown, chitinous distal portion, 
wholly uncalcified, and of very irregular shape. In specimens considered 
typical the distal portion consists of a narrow, elongate, cupped median 
extension, very deeply excavated on the outer, less deeply on the inner face; 
and further cut away on each side nearly to its juncture with the calcareous 
base, where the chitinous portion is spread out abruptly and slightly 
excavated to form two shallow lateral cups. As a result of wear the median 


MOLLUSCA 35 


extension may be excavated nearly to the base within as well as without, 
so that the pallet appears to end in two slender leathery fingers. The 
lateral excavations are usually unequal, and one or both may be entirely 
lacking. The calcareous base is cut off abruptly at its juncture with the 
distal chitinous portion. 

This species was described by Deshayes (1863) from Reunion Isle. Not- 
withstanding the irregularity in the form of the pallets, the characteristic 
leathery distal projections enable them to be recognized almost at a glance. 
But the chitinous portion rather readily comes free of the calcareous base, 
which then has a deceptive appearance of completeness, and might be 
mistaken for a pallet of some other species. 

The test board at Nawiliwili was placed February 1, 1923. In the earlier 
blocks Teredo affinis predominates, and is very destructive; but in the 
blocks placed after September it is almost entirely replaced by Teredo 
bartschi and Teredo diegensis. A few specimens of T. affinis have been 
found in the blocks from Honolulu Harbor. 


Teredo samoaensis Miller (Plate IV, Figs. 24-28). Univ. Calif., Publ. 
Zool., v. 26. 


Shell similar to that of Teredo furcillatus, but generally more trans- 
parent, and with a similar auricle. Interiorly the shell is characterized 
by a very broad, irregular apophysis, which is a useful, although not 
infallible guide in the identification of the shell. 

Pallets with a stalk of medium length and a long tapering blade, which 
is divided into two distinct portions. The basal portion, comprising about 
one-half the length of the blade, is broadly ovate and calcareous; the distal 
portion consists of a narrower, nearly straight-sided, more or less com- 
pletely calcified semicylinder, flattened on the inner face, slightly cupped at 
the extremity. At the juncture of these two elements the pallet is encircled 
by a band of brown epidermis, which some times more or less completely 
envelops the distal portion. 

The type specimen, from Tutuila, Samoa, is No. 1730, Museum of the 
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Paratypes have been 
placed in the collections of the Department of Zoology, University of Cali- 
fornia, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and the United 
States National Museum. The measurements of the type are: shell, height, 
3.8 mm.; length, 3.8 mm.; pallets, length of blade, 2.9 mm.; width of blade, 
1.38 mm.; length of stalk, 2.1 mm. 

This species has been found only in Samoa, where it occurred commonly 
in the blocks from a board placed in November, 1923. This board was lost 
before adequate data were secured, and a second board placed the following 
June was not attacked at all by this species. 


Teredo trulliformis Miller. (Plate V, Figs. 34-37). Univ. Calif. Publ. 
Zool., v. 26. 


Shell with a greatly reduced auricle, which is so fused with the posterior 
median portion that the boundary between the two can scarcely be detected 
on the exterior surface. Interiorly the auricle overlaps the posterior 
median portion a little distance, and its anterior edge can be distinguished, 
but does not form a shelf with a cavity behind it as it does in all of the 
foregoing species. 

Pallets with a short, broad blade, and a stalk of medium length which, 
instead of tapering toward the end, becomes gradually expanded, like the 
handle of a trowel (Latin trulla). The distal portion of the blade is covered 
by a grayish or brownish epidermis, and the extremity is characterized by 
a shallow crescent-shaped excavation. 

The posterior end of the tube is divided by a calcareous partition, forming 
two siphonal openings. 

The measurements of the type are: shell, height, 3.4 mm.; length, 3.2 
mm.; pallets, length of blade, 1.8 mm.; width of blade, 1.2 mm.; length of 
stalk, 1.3 mm. The type, from Honolulu Harbor, is No. 1731, Museum of 
the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Paratypes are in the 


36 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


collections of the Department of Zoology, University of California, the 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and the United States National 
Museum. 


This species occurs commonly in the blocks from Honolulu Harbor, and 
somewhat rarely in the blocks from Pearl Harbor and Nawiliwili. The 
longest burrow recorded measured 9 cm. 

Teredo (Teredora) thomsoni Tryon. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 
Ser. 2; v. 7, 1868, pp. 280, 281 pl. 2; figs: 8-5. 

This species is of large size, rapid growth and quite destructive. Speci- 
mens have been found in test blocks from: 


Channel Five, Fla. St. George, Bermuda. 
Key West, Fla. 


Teredo (Teredora) panamensis Bartsch. U. 8. Natl. Mus. Bull. 122, 1922, 
p. 34 pl. 27, figs. 3 and 4; pl. 35 fig. 2. 

This is a very destructive species of medium size and has been found only 
at Coco Solo, C. Z., though it is credibly reported to be present in other 
harbors in the vicinity of the Canal Zone where no specimens were collected 
by this Committee. 

Teredo (Psiloteredo) dilatata Stimson. Proc. Bost. Soc., Nat. Hist., v. 4, 
135 )-<pelice 

A few specimens of this species were found at York Harbor, Me., and 
Provincetown, Mass., only. It reaches considerable size, but so far as the 
present investigation shows does not seem to be of great economic impor- 
tance from the standpoint of damage to harbor structures. 

Teredo (Psiloteredo) sigerfoosi Bartsch. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 122, 1922, 
pp. 59 and 40, pl. 238 fig..2* pi oo tiga 

Specimens of this species were found only at Beaufort, N. C., and Charles- 
ton, S. C. It is a very destructive species and reaches considerable size. 

Teredo (Lyrodus) bipartita Jeff. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, v. 6, 1860. 

Specimens have been found only at Channel Five, Fla., and Agars Island, 
Bermuda. The number of larvae found in the adult females was small, and 
the species is not, so far as is indicated by these investigations, of much 
economic importance. 

Teredo (Teredothyra) dominicensis Bartsch. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 122, 
1922"pp. 28-24, ple 21 ee Dino ieee 

Teredo (Teredothyra) atwoodi Bartsch. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., v. 36, 
pp. 97-98 

It has been found impossible to separate these two species in the exam- 
ination of the large number of specimens available. These species are very 
destructive, and have been found in the following harbors: 


Matanzas, Cuba. Fajardo, Porto Rico. 
Guantanamo, Cuba. San Pedro de Macoris, S. D. 
San Juan, Porto Rico. Santo Domingo, S. D 


Christiansted, V. I. 


Teredo (Zopoteredo) clappi Bartsch. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. N., 36, 1923, 
pp. 96-97. 
This very destructive species has been found in the following harbors: 


Channel Five, Fla. Guantanamo, Cuba. 

Key West, Fla. Port au Prince, Haiti. 

St. George, Bermuda. San Pedro de Macoris, S. D. 
Bars Bay, Bermuda. Christiansted, V. I. 


Fajardo, Porto Rico Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 


MOLLUSCA ut 


Teredo (Teredops) diegensis Bartsch. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 122, 1922, 
meeeo-30s pl. 22, fig. 3; pl. 34, fic. 3. 


Specimens of this species have been found only in the Pacific Coast harbors 
of San Francisco, Los Angeles, Long Beach and San Diego. In activity it 
resembles Teredo navalis and is somewhat smaller, but is of much greater 
relative importance in San Diego than in San Francisco. 


According to Dr. Miller the specimens from the Pacific Islands differ from 
typical T. diegensis in having the ridges on the shell more close set, and the 
epidermis of the distal portion of the blade of the pallets more transparent, 
so that the outline of the oval calcareous portion within can be plainly seen. 


“In preserved specimens that we have received from Nawiliwili the dis- 
tal epidermis is of amber clearness; but the dried pallets have the epidermis 
darker and more opaque, so that they are not distinguishable from those of 
specimens from the California coast.” (Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., V. 26, 


No. 7.) 


In addition to the above previously described species, the examinations 
of test blocks and timber have shown the existence of a number of previously 
undescribed species. Some of these have been described by the biologists 
of the Committee, and others will be described in later publications. Those 
for which descriptions have not yet been prepared have for convenience 
been designated by letters or numbers in order to permit a statement of 
their description. 


Teredo (Teredo) bartschi Clapp (Plates VI, VII). Bost. Soc. Natl. Hist. 
Went eNOMe wlo2o.2pPp.ol-o8; pl. 3-4. ~ . 
Type specimen No. 45301, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, from Port 
Tampa, Fla. Additional specimens from the type locality are also in the 
United States National Museum; the Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- 
delphia; the American Museum of Natural History, New York; and the 
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Massachusetts (No. 45302). 
Description—Shell subglobular, milk-white, covered with a thin, decidu- 
ous, light horn-colored periostracum. The anterior portion of the shell joins 
the anterior median area in a gentle curve, the ventral edge making an 
angle of approximately 100°. IExteriorly, the anterior portion is marked 
with minutely denticulated ridges. At the ventral edge, these ridges are 
one-half as wide as the intervening spaces, the spaces becoming irregularly 
wider dorsally, where the ridges are one-fourth as wide as the spaces. 
- Beginning at the ventral edge there are 15 of these ridges in one millimeter. 
On that portion of the posterior ridge near the anterior median area, there 
are 80 denticles to the millimeter. These denticles have sharp, slightly 
curved points, supported by round blunt bases (Pl. VII, Fig. 46). The 
anterior median area, at a point opposite the ventral edge of the anterior 
area, occupies slightly less than one-third of the entire median area, and 
bears the usual denticulate ridges, there being 15 of these ridges to 0.5 mm. 
in a line continuous with the ventral border of the anterior area. In the 
type there are 16 of these ridges at this point, separated only by very finely 
incised lines. Each ridge bears closely crowded, broad denticles, of which 
there are 27 to the millimeter on the anterior ridge in the vicinity of its 
junction with the ventral ridge of the anterior area (PI. VII, Fig. 47). The 
ventral ends of these ridges bend back over the anterior median area at an 
angle of 45°, becoming gradually narrower and disappearing in the middle 
median area; or they may be only discernible as faint lines of growth. The 
middle median area is the complement of the anterior median area, being 
narrow dorsally and broad ventrally. At that portion of the shell directly 
opposite the ventral edge of the anterior area, the middle median area 1s 
slightly narrower than the anterior median. The anterior third of this area 
is convex, and roughened by the continuation of the ridges of the anterior 
area as growth lines; the posterior two-thirds is concave and smooth. ‘The 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


posterior median area is smooth and merges imperceptibly into the auricle, 
which is large and transparent. 

Interiorly, in the left valve, a short, broad, curved and pointed hinge-tooth 
arises from directly beneath the umbone. ‘The blade is two-thirds the length 
of the shell, slightly curved, broad, and reflected posteriorly, in the middle. 
Ventral knob large, of the same width as the ventral portion of the middle 
median area from which it arises; it is supported anteriorly by a delicate 
wall entirely free posteriorly and ventrally. Internal shelf of the auricle 
strong and well marked. 

Pallets of the type of Teredo navalis Linné. Stalk slightly longer than 
the blade. The lower half of the blade is calcareous, broad, flat on the inner, 
convex on the outer face, somewhat abruptly contracted at the juncture 
with the stalk, and enveloping the stalk with a short thin sheath. In the 
upper half of the blade, the calcareous portion is covered by a light yellow- 
ish horn-colored periostracum, the exterior face of which is more deeply 
cupped than the interior. Through the semi-transparent periostracum the 
calcareous portion of the blade can be seen to continue distally, in an irreg- 
ular form somewhat similar to a broad hourglass, with a deep sinus on 
either side. 

At the posterior end of the tube, a short distance from the external open- 
ing, are two thin, sharp longitudinal ridges, or lamellae, arising from oppo- 
site sides of the internal wall and nearly meeting at the center. When in 
position, the broad surface of the blade of the pallet is at right angles to 
these lamellae (Pl. VI, Fig. 40). At the external opening of the tube, on 
each side, between the lamellae, is a deep sinus. 

The measurements of the type are: shell, height, 4 mm.; length, 4.2 mm.; 
pallets, total length, 5 mm.; stalk, 8 mm.; width of blade, 1.2 mm. 

The dimensions given for the shell are those of a superimposed rectangle, 
exactly containing the shell, with the sides parallel to a line drawn between 
the centers of the dorsal and ventral knobs. 

I take great pleasure in naming this species for Dr. Paul Bartsch of the 
United States National Museum. 

Teredo bartschi belongs to the group of which Teredo navalis is the type. 
It may be distinguished from the other species of that group by the peculiar 
construction of the pallets. In Teredo bartschi the distal half of the blade is 
transparent, showing the internal calcareous cone, while in TJ. morsei, 
novangliae, beaufortana, and T. beachi of Bartsch, all but the distal extrem- 
ity of the blade is calcareous and opaque. The dimensions of the pallets 
of the type specimens of the above species also show that T. bartschi differs 
in having the blade much shorter than the stalk. 


TOTAL LENGTH 


OF PALLET STALK BLADE 

Teredo beach 25655 oe ee 5.5 mm. 2.0 mm 3.5 mm 
NOVONDUGC ite sae 5.0 Ls 3.3 
MOVEEL EHS to a ee 5.1 1.7 3.4 
beaufortana ........ 5.2 2.0 3.2 
bartecht...: iG ayes 5.0 3.0 rate] 


It will be seen from the above table that the dimensions of the pallets of 
the first four species listed are very similar to one another and very differ- 
ent from those of T. bartschi. When dry, the pallets assume a very different 
but characteristic appearance. The distal chitinous portion acquires the 
shape of the internal calcareous portion which it surrounds, while the lower 
portion is drawn in laterally to fill the sinus in the calcareous part and the 
cup is made nearly flat (Pl. VI, Fig. 38). The internal partitions or ridges 
of the tube also serve to distinguish this species from any previously 
described species of Teredo s.s. on this coast. When the pallets are forced 
into the posterior end of the tube, the external convex surfaces of the 
' blades, coming in contact with these sharp ridges, are forced in, pressing 
the internal flattened faces of the blades more closely together, and thus 
closing the external opening more effectually. 

The embryos within the parent are reddish purple in color, and are 
frequently found in parents having a total length of only 20 mm. ‘When 


MOLLUSCA 39 


ready to be expelled from the parent, the shell of the embryo is nearly cir- 
cular in outline, approximately 0.27 mm. in height and 0.25 mm. in length. 
It is nearly transparent, light horn-colored, excepting in the vicinity of the 
edge of each valve, particularly that portion near the umbone, where there 
is a narrow band of reddish-purple color. When viewed in bulk, this color 
predominates. Directly beneath the umbone is a strong flat hinge-plate, 
with from four to six irregular, faint, incised lines. 

The shell differs most constantly from that of the species described by 
Dr. Bartsch as Teredo morsei (Bartsch, 1922, p. 21), in the shape of the 
auricle. In T. morsei the height of the auricle is greater than the length, 
and the outline is subangular. In T. bartschi the auricle is produced poster- 
iorly, the length being equal to the height, and the outline semicircular. 
The great variation in the shell characters of Teredo and the objections to 
using these characters for distinguishing species, have been well described 
by Dr. Miller (1922, p. 309), who has called attention particularly to the 
variation in the auricle. 

The destruction caused by this species is considerable. Test blocks 
from Port Tampa, Fla., submerged for twelve weeks, contained specimens 
with a tube length of 125 mm. Specimens from wood submerged for a 
longer period frequently attain a length of 200 mm. Test blocks submerged 
for eight weeks are often completely honeycombed (PI. VI, Fig. 41). 

This species has been found at the following locations in the blocks placed 
by the Committee on Marine Piling Investigations. With the exception of 
Cedar Keys, Fla., it has always been found in company with Bankia gouldt. 


SouTH CAROLINA: Charleston. Rare. About one specimen of Teredo bart- 
schi to 50 Bankia gouldi. No attempt was made by the 
embryos of this species to enter wood at this locality 
later than October 15 in 1922. 


GEORGIA: Brunswick. Very rare. Bankia gouldi plentiful. 


FLORIDA: Fernandina. Rare. Attack occurring as late as November 15 in 
922. 

Seddon Island. Rare. 

St. Petersburg. Rare. Attack continuing to December 15 in 1922. 

Port Tampa. Common. 

Fort Dade. Common. No embryos in wood placed in water later 
than December 15, 1922. 

Cedar Keys. Common. No attack at this locality later than 
November 15 in 1922. 


MISSISSIPPI: Pascagoula. Not common. 
Gulfport. Rare. 


LOUISIANA: Port Eads. Common; 90% of the shipworm attack due to 
Teredo bartschi, 10% to Bankia gouldt. No embryos entering 
the wood later than January 1, 1923. 


TEXAS: Galveston (Fort Point). Not common; 10% of the shipworm attack 
due to Teredo bartschi, 90% to Bankia gouldi. Specimens received 
from this locality, in blocks submerged ten weeks, contained well- 
developed embryos in parents with a total length of 25 mm. 

Galveston (Pier 18). Common; 90% Teredo bartschi, 10% Bankia 
gouldi. Specimens with 50-mm. tubes and containing embryos, 
were received from this locality in wood which had been sub- 
merged less than twelve weeks. 

Galveston (Pier C, Southern Pacific Railway). Common. A block 
Beer ess six weeks contained many specimens with 40-mm. 
tubes. 

Baytown. Very rare. In many hundred shipworms found in test 
blocks from this locality, but one Teredo bartschi occurred. 

Aransas Pass. Rare. 

Corpus Christi. Common. 


It will be noticed that this species has not been found in southern Florida, 
and this also is true of Bankia gouldi. The two species have a continuous 


40 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


distribution from South Carolina to Texas, excepting only the southern tip 
of Florida. Blocks from test boards at numerous stations in southern 
Florida contain many shipworms of several species, but in no case has an 
example of Teredo bartschi or Bankia gouldi been found south of Fernan- 
dina on the east coast or Tampa on the west coast. This distribution will 
be discussed in a later paper. 


Dr. Miller found that 


“Specimens of a Teredo prevalent in the later blocks from Nawiliwili 
compare closely with paratypes of this species which I have received from 
Mr. Clapp. This species occurs numerously in the blocks placed after 
September, and somewhat sporadically in the earlier blocks.” (Univ. Calif. 
Publ. Zool., v. 26, No. 7.) 


Teredo (Teredo) portoricensis Clapp (Plate VIII, Figs. 48-54). (Trans. 


Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, v. XXV.)* 


Shell, subglobular, white, covered with a transparent colorless, perio- 
stracum. The juncture of the anterior, with the anterior median area, 
clearly marked by a broadly curved, slightly incised line. The ventral edge 
of the anterior area, forming an angle of about 100° with the anterior edge 
of the anterior median area. Externally the anterior area with the usual, 
denticulated ridges, the ventral posterior portion, with the ridges of about 
the same width as the intervening spaces. Dorsally the ridges are one- 
fourth as wide as the spaces between them. Beginning at the ventral pos- 
terior edge there are eight of these ridges to the millimeter, each ridge bear- 
ing approximately seventy denticles to the millimeter (Pl. VIII, Fig. 48). 
The anterior median area, at a point opposite the ventral edge of the an- 
terior area, occupies one-quarter of the entire median area. There are on 
this area, in a line continuous with the ventral edge of the anterior area, 
denticulated ridges averaging in width twenty-five to the millimeter. There 
are in the type, eleven of these ridges, which bear the usual broad denticles, 
there being twenty-eight to the millimeter (Pl. VIII, Fig. 49). The ventral 
ends of these ridges can be clearly seen continuing as sharp growth lines 
over the entire median area, becoming less distinct on the auricle. ‘The 
middle median area is milk white in contrast to the semi-transparent anterior 
median area, and is separated from the anterior median area by a thin, 
narrow, transparent band. The posterior median area is milk white and 
occupies one-half of the entire median area. The auricle is semi-transparent, 
showing more or less irregular growth lines and with the periostracum 
thicker than elsewhere on the shell. 


Internally, in the left valve, a short, broad, flat hinge tooth, directly be- 
neath the umbone. The blade slightly more than one-half the length of the 
shell, of about the same width for its entire length, the lower half reflected 
posteriorly. The ventral knob large. The internal shelf of the auricle well 
marked. 

Pallets (Plate VIII, Fig. 50) of the type of Teredo navalis Linné. The 
stalk of about the same length as the blade, and merging with it in a 
gradual curve. The lower half of the blade white, and, seen through the 
transparent chitinous portion of the upper half with the calcareous part 
slightly cupped, the outer portion extending farther distally than the inner. 
The upper half entirely composed of transparent, yellowish horn colored 
periostracum. Deeply cupped distally for more than half its length, the 
outer surface being slightly less deeply cupped than the inner, and with a 
narrow, deep sinus at the center. 

The posterior end of the tube, with two short, narrow, low ridges, arising 
from opposite sides of the internal wall, these ridges continuing posteriorly 
beyond the shelly portion of the tube as sharp points. 


*Consult W. F. Clapp, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 19238, vol. 37, INO 2 peo lee te le Ome 
description of the test blocks used by the Committee on Marine Piling Investigations. 
Also, for notes regarding the nomenclature used in the description of the various char- 
acters of the shell and pallets, and for references to recent literature on the subject. 

I am deeply indebted to Prof. S. C. Prescott of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
Cambridge, Mass., for laboratory facilities and for other assistance. 


-_s .  ——e 


MOLLUSCA Al 


The type specimen (Mus. Comp. Zodl. No. 45303) (Plate VIII, Figs. 
51-54) is from San Juan, Porto Rico. Additional specimens from the type 
locality are also in the U. S. National Museum. 


The measurements of the type are: 


Entire length of tube, 40 mm. 

Shell: Height, 3.2 mm. Length, 3.1 mm. 

Pallets. Length, 3.8 mm., divided equally between blade and pallets. 
Width of blade, 0.8 mm. 


Teredo portoricensis is most closely related to Teredo bartschi Clapp. 
The variation in the shell characters in each species is so great, that only 
very slight constant differences can be seen. The normal shell of a mature 
specimen of T. portoricensis is smaller than that of T.°bartschi. The 
length of the apophysis constantly proportionately less. The partitions in 
the tube, while always present, are much lower. and shorter than in 7. 
bartschi. The pallets most closely resemble those of T. bartschi, but con- 
stantly differ in having the blade longer and narrower, the juncture of the 
blade and pallet hardly perceptible, and the basal portion of the blade more 
gradually and narrowly expanded. Seen through the periostracum, the 
calcareous portion of the blade of the pallet of T. bartschi is cone shaped, 
while that of T. portoricensis is the opposite, deeply cupped at the center. 
In T. portoricensis, the periostracum on the outer face of the blade is less 
deeply cupped than that on the inner, while in T. bartschi the opposite is 
true. . 

This species has been found in the test blocks placed by the Committee 
on Marine Piling Investigations, National Research Council, at the follow- 
ing locations: Guantanamo, Cuba; San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo; 
Port au Prince, Haiti; San Juan, Porto Rico; St. Thomas, Virgin Islands; 
Coco Solo, Panama; and one specimen from Key West, Fla. 

At Guantanamo, Cuba, wood placed in the water on April 10 contained 
specimens 10 mm. in length on May 10; 60 mm. in length on June 10, and 
75 mm. in length July 10. 

At Port au Prince, Haiti, wood submerged December 1, 1922, contained 
on January 1, 1923, many 5 mm. specimens; January 15, 30 mm. specimens, 
and on February 1, 30 mm. specimens with the gills well filled with many 
fully developed embryos. Wood placed in the water at this location on 
June 1, 1923, while well filled with several other species of shipworms, con- 
tained no specimens of 7. portoricensis as late as September 38, 1923. 

At San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo, wood submerged December 1, 
1922, contained 20 mm. specimens on February 1, 1923, many with well 
developed embryos. 

At San Juan, Porto Rico, wood placed March 20, 1923, contained on May 
30, 40 mm. T. portoricensis with embryos. 

At St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, wood placed April 1, 1928, contained many 
30 mm. specimens on June 1. 

At Coco Solo, Panama, wood submerged December 4, 1922, contained 
many 30 mm. specimens on January 19, 1923, and on February 19 many 
specimens with well developed embryos in the gills. 

It can be seen from the above records that this species may grow to be 
60 mm. in length, in a period of two months or at a rate of approximately 
1 mm. a day, and that specimens with a total tube length of but 20 mm. may 
possess well developed embryos within the gills. Its rapid growth and 
early sexual maturity render it one of the species most frequently found in 
the West Indies, and the destruction caused by it is considerable. 


Teredo (Teredo) batilliformis* Clapp (Plates IX, XI,) Proc. Amer. Acad. 
Arts and Sci., v. 59, No. 12. (Contrib. Bermuda Biol. Sta. for Research, 
No. 148.) 


Shell subglobular, white, covered with a thin horn-colored periostracum. 
The anterior area joining the anterior-median area in a slightly curved 
incised line. ‘The ventral edge of the anterior area curving downward and 


*From batillwm, a shovel, referring to the shovel-shaped pallet, a name suggested by 
Dr. Mark. 


42 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


backward, but forming with the anterior edge of the anterior-median area 
an angle of only slightly more than 90°. 

Externally, the anterior area with the usual denticulate ridges. These 
ridges are one-half as wide as the intervening spaces. Beginning at the 
ventral posterior edge there are ten of these denticulate ridges to the milli- 
meter, each ridge bearing eighty denticles to the millimeter (Plate XI, Fig. 
67). The width of the anterior-median area, at a point opposite the ventral 
edge of the anterior area, slightly less than one-third that of the entire 
median area. The denticulate ridges on this area average twenty-six to the 
millimeter, counted along a line extending from the ventral edge of the 
anterior area perpendicular to the ridges. In the type specimen there are 
fifteen of these ridges, each bearing about twenty-eight denticles to the 
millimeter (Plate XI, Fig. 68). The denticles on the ventral ends of these 
ridges end abruptly where the ridges, as faint growth lines, bend backward 
over the anterior portion of the middle-median area. The posterior portion 
of the middle-median area, thin, transparent, slightly concave. The pos- 
terior-median area opaque, milk-white, considerably more than half as wide 
as the entire median area; its posterior half marked by narrow deeply 
incised growth lines, dividing this part of the shell into regularly spaced 
broad ridges. The auricle small and semi-transparent, excepting the outer 
edge, which is milk-white. Where the anterior margin of the auricle meets 
the posterior-median area, the latter presents a narrow shoulder, but this 
does not prevent tracing, on the auricle, the growth lines, which there 
appear as narrow, transparent, concentric threads. 

Internally, the left valve with a very large broad hinge-plate. In both 
valves the blade two-thirds of the length of the shell, thin, the dorsal part 
narrow, the middle and ventral portions broadened and slightly reflected 
posteriorly. The ventral knob large. The juncture of the anterior area 
with the anterior-median area marked by a broad, thick, transparent cal- 
lous. The auricle extending over the posterior-median portion in a broad, 
thick, opaque, callous, ending in an abrupt ridge, but lacking any trace of a 
shelf or overhang. 

Pallets (Plate IX, Figs. 59, 60) with a broad, nearly square blade, which 
envelops with a thin sheath a long, very slender stalk. The proximal por- 
tion of the blade white, arising from the stalk in an abrupt curve. The 
calcareous portion extends to the extreme distal end of the blade, the distal 
two-thirds of which is covered with a yellowish-horn-colored periostracum. 
The inner face of the blade flat, the distal edge nearly straight. The outer 
face slightly convex, its distal portion with a broad shallow depression. 

The posterior end of the shelly tube with two long, narrow ridges, arising 
from opposite (lateral) sides of the internal surface; the wall greatly 
thickened at the base of these ridges and continuing beyond the rest of 
the shelly portion of the tube as sharp points. 

The type specimen (Mus. Comp. Zo6él. No. 45805) is from St. George, 
Bermuda. 


The measurements of the type are: 


Shell: Height 4 mm.; length 3.75 mm. 
Pallets: Entire length 3.7 mm.; length of stalk 2.1 mm.; of blade 1.6 
mm.; width of blade 1.3 mm. 


It is very difficult to separate the shell of Teredo batilliformis from that 
of other closely related species of Teredo. From Teredo portoricensis it 
may usually be distinguished because possessing a proportionately larger 
anterior area. The ventral edge of the auricle forms a less abrupt angle 
with the posterior-median area than in Teredo portoricensis. The broad 
flat hinge-plate is much larger, and the blade proportionately longer. The 
juncture of the auricle with the posterior-median area is less well ‘marked. 
The internal ridges of the posterior end of the tube are considerably longer 
than is usual in Teredo portoricensis. 

The pallets are very different from those of any previously described 
species, the delicate stalk and the broad, squarish blade being so dissimilar 
to those of other species of the subgenus Teredo that I place this species 
here with some doubt. 


MOLLUSCA 43 


Teredo batilliformis has been found only at Bermuda. It has occurred 
at frequent intervals in test-blocks at all four of the stations (Agar’s 
Island, Bar’s Bay, Ireland Island and St. George) established there. A 
test-block submerged at Agar’s Island in August, 1922, and removed Jan- 
uary 1, 1923, contained, among others, one specimen with a tube 35 mm. in 
length and holding in the gills about one hundred fully developed embryos. 
The first specimens to be found appeared in the test-blocks at all four 
stations simultaneously in the latter part of December. None attained a 
total length of more than 60 mm., and no specimens contained more than 
one hundred embryos in the gills. 


Teredo (Teredo) spp. D. E. L., Clapp. 


These tentative species very closely resemble each other, and while a 
rather wide individual variation has been found, further study may show 
that they are one species. Their resemblance to Teredo (Teredo) parksi is 
very close, and further study may show that all three belong to this species. 
The distribution is as follows: 


as 7 )?? 
Key West, Fla. 

TS ite 
Ireland Island, Bermuda. Port au Prince, Haiti. 
Guantanamo, Cuba. St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 
San Juan, Porto Rico. Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 
Fajardo, Porto Rico. 

ef fas 
St. George, Bermuda. Bar’s Bay, Bermuda. 
Ireland Island, Bermuda. Agar’s Island, Bermuda. 


Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. Q Clapp. 


This undescribed species is of wide distribution in Gulf and Caribbean 
waters, and is of importance from a standpoint of destructiveness. Speci- 
mens have been found in the test blocks from: 


Key West, Fla. Fajardo, Porto Rico. 
Tampa Bay, Fla. Aux Cayes, Haiti. 
Pensacola, Fla. Puerto Plata, San Domingo. 
Mobile Bay, Ala. St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 
Pt. Isabel, Tex. Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 


Guantanamo, Cuba. 


Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. W Clapp. 

This species has been found only at Port au Prince, Haiti, and is of little 
economic importance. 

Teredo (Lyrodus) sp. G Clapp. 

This undescribed species is of considerable economic importance, although 


it does not appear to reach great size. Specimens have been found at the 
following locations: 


Matanzas, Cuba. San Pedro de Macoris, San Do- 
Guantanamo, Cuba. mingo. 

Arecibo, Porto Rico. Puerto Plata, San Domingo. 
San Juan, Porto Rico. Port au Prince, Haiti. 
Mayaguez, Porto Rico. Aux Cayes, Haiti. 

Fajardo, Porto Rico. St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 


Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 
Teredo (Lyrodus) sp. J Clapp. 
This undescribed species is very closely allied to sp. G, and may be found 
after further study to be the same. Specimens have been found at Aransas 
Pass, Corpus Christi and Point Isabel, Tex. 


44 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Teredo (Zopoteredo) somersi* Clapp (Plates X, XI) Proc. Amer. Acad. 
Arts and Sci., v. 59, No. 12. (Contrib. Bermuda Biol. Sta. for Research, 
No. 148.) 


Shell subglobular, white, covered with a transparent, colorless or very 
light horn-colored periostracum. The anterior area with the usual denticu- 
late ridges. The juncture of the anterior with the anterior-median area 
marked by a curved, slightly incised line. The ventral edge of the anterior 
area forming an angle of 100° or more with the anterior edge of the 
anterior median area. On the ventral posterior portion of the anterior 
area the denticulate ridges of approximately the same width as the inter- 
vening spaces. Dorsally, the intervening spaces only a little wider than 
the denticulate ridges. At the ventral portion there are twelve of these 
ridges to the millimeter, each ridge bearing one hundred and ten minute 
denticles to the millimeter (Plate XI, Fig. 69). The anterior median area 
occupies slightly more than one-third of the entire median area. The 
broadest portion of this area—at the level of the ventral edge of the 
anterior area—bears seventeen of the usual denticulate ridges, which 
average thirty-five to the millimeter; the anterior ridge bears thirty-two 
denticles to the millimeter (Plate XI, Fig. 70). The posterior-ventral ends 
of these ridges can be faintly seen as growth lines passing backward over 
the middle-median area, quickly disappearing on the posterior-median area, 
which is nearly smooth. The auricle is small, its outline nearly semi- 
circular and its juncture with the posterior-median area perceived only 
with difficulty. 

Interiorly, there is the usual broad, flat hinge-plate in the left valve 
directly beneath the umbone. The apophysis, curving downward and back- 
ward for slightly more than one-half the length of the shell, narrow and 
thin, excepting at its extreme ventral portion, where it is considerably 
broadened. The concave surface of the blade reflected posteriorly. The 
juncture of the auricle with the posterior-median area having no trace of a 
shelf, but marked by a broad, thickened area, with a narrow groove at its 
anterior edge. 

Pallets (Plate X, Figs. 65, 66) very strong and solid. The stalk short, 
thick, opaque-white, equal in length to the blade. The juncture of the 
stalk with the sheath of the blade abrupt and well marked, owing to the 
much larger diameter of the sheath. The blade calcareous, white, expand- 
ing from the stalk by a broad regular curve, the distal half covered by a 
nearly opaque, heavy, smooth, closely fitting periostracum of light horn- 
color. Only the chitinous horns at the extreme distal end of the blade lack- 
ing the calcareous substance. The sides of the blade converging slightly 
distally. Inner surface of the blade very slightly concave, outer surface 
convex, deeply cupped at the distal end, the outer face somewhat less deeply 
cupped than the inner. 

The posterior end of the tube with a very short, thin, horizontal partition, 
dividing the tube into equal parts. The tube greatly thickened on each 
side at the base of the partition. 

The type specimen (Mus. Comp. Zoél. No. 45304) is from Ireland Island, 
Bermuda. There are also in the U. S. National Museum additional speci- 
mens from the type locality. 


The measurements of the type are: 
Shell: Height 3.2 mm.; length 2.8 mm. 
Pallets: Length 2.9 mm., divided equally between blade and stalk; 
width of blade at widest portion 1 mm. 


The shell of Teredo somersi can be separated from that of Teredo (Zopo- 
teredo) clappi Bartsch (19238, p. 96) only with great difficulty. I have 
placed this species in the subgenus Zopoteredo because it has at the junc- 
ture of the auricle with the posterior-median area the structure typical 
of that subgenus. From Teredo clappi, however, it may usually be dis- 
tinguished by the fact that the angle made by the ventral edge of the 
anterior area with the anterior edge of the anterior-median area is more 


*Named from ‘Sir George Somers, Knight, Admirall of the Seas,’’ who has been called 
the “Father of Bermuda.’ This name also was suggested by Dr. Mark. 


MOLLUSCA  ~ 45 


obtuse. On the anterior area of Teredo clappi there are eighteen denticu- 
late ridges to the millimeter, whereas in Teredo somersi there are usually 
only twelve. On the anterior-median area, the denticulate ridges are nar- 
rower in Teredo somersi than in Teredo clappi (Teredo somersi thirty- 
five, Teredo clappi twenty-eight to the millimeter), but the denticles on 
these ridges are considerably broader (Teredo somersi thirty-two, Teredo 
clappi forty to the millimeter). 

The pallets of Teredo somevsi are very different from those of Teredo 
clappi, the most important difference being that those of mature specimens 
show no trace of the sinus, or double cup, characteristic of Teredo clappi. 
Pallets of very young specimens, however, clearly show this sinus. 

The entire length of the tube rarely exceeds fitty millimeters, and speci- 
mens less than fifteen millimeters in length frequently contain well de- 
veloped embryos in the gills. The number of embryos in an individual is 
small; no specimen examined contained more than seventy-five, and small 
specimens had, in an apparently full litter, not more than twenty to twenty- 
five. Possibly because of this fact the species is rare and the damage caused 
by it practically negligible. 

Specimens of this species have been found not only at Bermuda, but also 
in the test-blocks placed by the Committee on Marine Piling Investigations 
at the following locations: Channel 5 and two stations at Key West, Fla.; 
San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo; Port au Prince, Haiti; and Chris- 
tiansted, St. Croix, Virgin Islands. 

In Bermuda, test-blocks placed at Agar’s Island, Bar’s Bay, Ireland 
Island, and St. George, all contained specimens of this species at irregular 
intervals. The first specimens found occurred in test-blccks placed in the 
water August, 1922, and removed January 15, 1923. No blocks removed 
before that date contained any specimens of this species. 

Specimens from Florida and the West Indies are generally smaller than 
those from Bermuda; however, one specimen in wood from the Virgin 
Islands had a tube length of one hundred millimeters. Stenomorphic 
(Bartsch, 1923, p. 330) specimens are frequent in all localities. 


Teredo (Zopoteredo) johnsoni* Clapp. (Plate XII, Figs. 71-78.) Trans. 
Acad. Sei. of St. Louis, v. XXY. 


Shell subglobular, white, covered with a thin, nearly transparent, color- 
less periostracum. The narrow incised line separating the anterior and the 
anterior-median areas very slightly curved. The ventral edge of the an- 
terior area meeting the anterior edge of the anterior-median area in a 
nearly straight line, forming an angle of approximately 90°. 

Externally, the anterior area large, with many evenly spaced denticulate 
ridges, which are of about the same width as the intervening spaces. 
There are sixteen of these ridges to the millimeter on the posterior-ventral 
portion of this area, each ridge bearing one hundred and twenty minute 
denticles to the millimeter (Plate XII, Fig. 71. The anterior-median area 
occupying, at its widest part, one-third of the entire median area. The 
denticulate ridges on this area, along a line continuous with the ventral 
edge of the anterior area, average thirty to the millimeter. There are 
twenty-six of these ridges in the type specimen, each ridge bearing approxi- 
mately thirty-three denticles to the millimeter (Plate XII, Fig. 72). The 
middle-median area is narrow, divided longitudinally into nearly equal 
halves, the anterior half, with the continuation of the denticulate ridges, 
showing as narrow, diagonally descending growth lines, which curve up- 
ward, and become more or less obscure on the posterior half of the middle- 
median area. The posterior-median area large, occupying more than half 
of the entire median area, nearly smooth, showing only occasional, faint, 
incised growth lines. The auricle very small, being merely a continuation 
of the posterior-median area, with no trace externally of a separating 
groove or concavity. 

Internally, a small, square hinge-plate in the left valve. The blade two- 
thirds of the length of the entire shell, thin, broad dorsally, the middle and 


*Mr. Clapp says: “I take pleasure in naming this species for Mr. A. A. Johnson, Assistant 
to the Director of the Marine Piling Investigations Committee of the National Research 
Council.” 


46 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


ventral portions narrower, its entire length reflected slightly posteriorly. 
The ventral knob narrow, long, its base extending dorsally for a considerable 
distance. The juncture of the anterior with the anterior-median area 
marked by a narrow, thickened chord. The juncture of the auricle with 
the posterior-median area hardly visible. 

Pallets (Plate XII, Fig. 73) with long, stout, opaque white stalks. The 
blade, short, broad, investing a considerable portion of the upper part of 
the stalk in a thin sheath. The outer face convex. The proximal third of 
the blade calcereous, arising from the stalk in an abrupt curve. The middle 
third swollen, covered with a light horn-colored periostracum. The distal 
third covered with a dark chestnut colored periostracum with a deep central 
sinus dividing this portion of the blade into two shallow cups, the outer 
face considerably more deeply indented than the inner. The inner face of 
the blade flat, its distal two-thirds covered with a periostracum irregularly 
streaked with narrow bands of light and dark chestnut. 

The posterior end of the tube with a long delicate partition (Plate XII, 
Fig. 74) dividing the tube into equal parts. 

The type (Mus. Comp. Zodél. No. 45306) is from Guantanamo, Cuba. 


The measurements of the type are: 


Shell: Height 4.5 mm.; length 4.5 mm. 
Pallets: Total length 4.3 mm.; length of stalk 3 mm.; width of blade 
1.6 mm. 


The shell of this species is very closely related to that of Teredo clappi 
Bartsch (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1923, 36, p. 96). However, the 
apophysis is shorter and narrower, the ventral knob smaller. The entire 
median area in Teredo johnsoni is always proportionately broader than in - 
Teredo clappi. The range of variation of the denticulate ridges of both 
species is so great that no constant difference can be established, but the 
angle formed at the juncture of the ridges of the anterior area with those 
of the anterior-median area is always approximately 90° in Teredo johnsoni, 
whereas in Teredo clappi it is constantly obtuse, being rarely less than 100°. 

The pallets are very different from those of any previously described 
species of Zopoteredo in that they are more nearly truly double cupped, 
being in this respect more like Teredothyra. In Teredo somersi the char- 
acteristic median sinus can be seen only in the pallets of the very young, 
never persisting in the mature specimens. In Teredo clappi it is fre- 
quently obscured or lost entirely in mature individuals, although always 
present in immature specimens. In Teredo johnsoni the sinus is constant 
in specimens of all ages. 

Specimens of this species have been found in the test blocks placed by 
the Committee on Marine Piling Investigations at the following locations: 
Guantanamo, Cuba; Port au Prince, Haiti; Fajardo and San Juan, Porto 
Rico; St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 

This species is comparatively rare and the destruction caused by it very 
slight. Few specimens exceed 60 mm. in total length. 

At Guantanamo, Cuba, a test block placed in the water on October 1, 
1922, contained specimens 20 mm. in length on December 30. A special 
block made of shingles, placed in the water in April, 1923, contained sev- 
eral 60 mm. specimens July 7, 1923. At Port au Prince, Haiti, a test block 
submerged June 1 and removed August 14 contained Teredo johnsoni on 
January 2, 1923, and wood placed in the water July 1, 1923, contained small 
specimens on August 1, 1923. At Fajardo, Porto Rico, wood submerged 
from January 9 till April 30, 1928, contained several specimens of this 
species. At St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, wood submerged four months and 
removed January 1, 1923, contained several specimens. 


Teredo (Zopoteredo) fulleri* Clapp. (Plate XIII, Figs. 79-85) Trans. 
Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, v. XXV. 


Shell subglobular, small, bluish white, covered with a strong, transparent 
periostracum. A thin, broadly curved, incised line separating the anterior 


*Mr. Clapp says: “I have named this species for Mr. Nelson M. Fuller of the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology, in recognition of the assistance he has given me in the 
study of the shipworm problem.” 


MOLLUSCA AT 


from the anterior-median area. The angle formed by the ventral ridges of 
the anterior area with the anterior rows of the anterior-median area, con- 
siderably more than 100°. 


Externally, the anterior area, large. In height, slightly less than half 
that of the entire shell. The denticulate ridges of this area twice as wide 
as the spaces between them. There are in the vicinity of the ventral edge 
about twenty-five of these ridges to the millimeter, each ridge bearing one 
hundred and thirty minute denticles to the millimeter (Plate XIII, Fig. 79). 
In the type specimen, the anterior-median area at its widest part is one- 
half of the width of the entire median area and bears thirty-six closely 
crowded denticulate ridges averaging, in a line continuous with the ventral 
edge of the anterior area, forty teeth to the millimeter. Each ridge bears 
closely crowded, nearly square, denticles, there being forty-five of these 
denticles to the millimeter (Plate XIII, Fig. 80). The middle-median area 
is narrow, translucent, with the ventral ends of the ridges of the anterior- 
median area disappearing quickly or persisting only as faint growth lines. 
The posterior-median area opaque, milk white, smooth, except for micro- 
scopic incised growth lines. The auricle small, not clearly separated from 
the posterior-median area, the dorsal edge concave. 


Internally, a large, sharp, curved hinge-plate in the left valve. The blade 
two-thirds of the length of the entire shell, thin, narrow, the ventral end 
broadly reflected posteriorly. The ventral knob small, somewhat narrower 
than the supporting middle-median area. The anterior-median area bear- 
ing a thickened chord in the vicinity of the anterior area. The auricle 
extending over the posterior-median area in a heavy callous, ending in an 
abrupt deep ridge, but with no trace of a shelf. 

The pallet (Plate XIII, Fig. 81) with a very slender, delicate translucent 
stalk. The stalk can be seen to extend dorsally a considerable distance 
through the long, nearly opaque enveloping sheath of the blade. The blade 
long, narrow, with the sides nearly straight, opaque, milk white, covered 
with a very thin horn-colored periostracum, which is very difficult to see 
excepting at the extreme distal end. The outer face convex, the inner flat. 
The distal end slightly cupped, with the outer face of the blade divided for 
half its entire length by a narrow, deep sinus. 


The type (Mus. Comp. Zodél. No. 45307) is from Christiansted, St. Croix, 
Virgin Islands. 


The measurements of the type are: 


Shell: Height 3.5 mm.; length 3.5 mm. 
Pallets: Total length 4 mm., equally divided between blade and stalk; 
width of blade 0.9 mm. 


The shell of Teredo fulleri is very similar to that of other species of the 
subgenus Zopoteredo. It is perhaps most like that of Teredo johnsoni, from 
which it may be distinguished by the more obtuse angle formed by the 
anterior and anterior-median area, the shell being in this respect more 
nearly like that of Teredo clappi. The ridges of the anterior area are pro- 
portionately larger and the intervening spaces smaller. The internal ridge 
at the juncture of the anterior with the anterior-median area is constantly 
much more clearly marked in Teredo fulleri than in Teredo johnsoni or 
‘ Teredo clappi. The shell is smaller, no specimens having been found ex- 
ceeding 3.5 mm. in length or height. 

The pallets differ greatly from those of any previously described species, 
so much so, that, were it not for the lack of any trace of a true internal 
shelf, I should not feel certain that the species belonged in the subgenus 
Zopoteredo. The most striking character of the pallet is the milk white 
color of the blade through almost its entire length. This is in marked con- 
trast to the other species of Zopoteredo, in all of which a large portion of 
the blade of the pallet is covered with a dark colored periostracum. The 
long, narrow sinus being only on the external face of the blade, the distal 
end is not double cupped as in Teredo johnsoni. 

This species is probably extremely rare, for it has been found in the 
numerous test boards placed by the Committee on Marine Piling Investiga- 


48 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


tions throughout the West Indies only at Port au Prince, Haiti, and Chris- 
tiansted, St. Croix, Virgin Islands. At the first named locality no specimen 
of this species occurred in test blocks, which were submerged from Decem- 
ber 1, 1922, until June 1, 1923. These blocks were, however, well filled with 
several other species of shipworms. In a series of test blocks submerged 
June 1, 1923, one of which was removed and examined each month until 
October 1, all contained numerous specimens of several species of ship- 
worms, but only the block which had been submerged two months, having 
been removed August 1, contained specimens of Teredo fullert. Of seventy- 
five shipworms found in this block only five belonged to this species, the 
largest with a tube 30 mm. long. 

At Christiansted, test blocks submerged September 15, 1922, and removed 
bi-monthly, contained many shipworms belonging to several species. No 
Teredo fulleri were found in these blocks until September 1, 1923. The 
blocks removed from the water on that date contained one 20 mm. specimen. 
The block removed on September 15, 1923, contained twenty specimens of 
Teredo fulleri, the largest with a tube 40 mm. in length. 


Two other undescribed species have not been placed in sub-genera and will 
require further study. They are species F Clapp and Z Clapp. 
Species F’, which is destructive, has been found at: 


Guantanamo, Cuba. St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 
Fajardo, Porto Rico. Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 
San Pedro de Macoris, San Do- 

mingo. 


Species Z appears to be of little economic importance and has been found 
only at Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 


Bankia 


This genus has a world-wide distribution, and its species are generally of 
large size. Most if not all species are thought to fertilize the eggs in the 
water, and consequently an examination of specimens does not give as good 
criteria for judging the capacity for destruction of the different species as 
is the case for most species of the genus Teredo. 

Bankia (Bankia) setacea Tryon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, ser. 
2,.V. 1, 1868;-pp. 144-1453 prt. figs 2 3: 

This is a very rapidly growing species which sometimes is reported to 
reach a length of four feet. It will frequently destroy a pile in one season, 
and has a very wide distribution on the Pacific Coast. (Fig. 16.) It is one 
of the most destructive of the American shipworms. Specimens have been 
received from the following harbors: 


San Diego, Cal. Ketchikan, Alaska. 
Los Angeles, Cal. Petersburg, Alaska. 
San Francisco, Cal. Juneau, Alaska. 
Coos Bay, Ore. Seward, Alaska. 
Puget Sound, Wash. Kodiak, Alaska. 


Bankia (Bankiella) gowldi Bartsch. U.S. Nat’l Mus. Bull. 122, pp. 1-12, 
pL. 2, 3:and See sepinceOeeDl ol slice 4s 

While this species is not reported to reach so great a size as Bankia 
setacea, it is exceedingly destructive in practically all the locations where 
found. It had been generally supposed to require a high salinity, but its 
presence at Great Bridge, Va., and in the Mobile River shows that it has a 
previously unsuspected ability to live in water of low salinity, and the 
experiments of the Chemical Warfare Service (page 193) tend to confirm 
this supposition. 


Specimens have been found, 


harbors: 


MOLLUSCA 


Newport News, Va. 


Norfolk, Va. 


Great Bridge, Va. 


Beaufort, N. C. 


Charleston, S. C. 


Savannah, Ga. 
Brunswick, Ga. 


Fernandina, Fla. 
‘Paripa’ Bay, Fla; 


Pensacola, Fla. 


Mobile, Ala. 


Sabine Pass, Tex. 
Galveston Bay, Tex. 


Lower Houston Channel, Tex. 


Rockport, Tex. 
Aransas Pass, Tex. 
Corpus Christi, Tex. 
Pt. Isabel, Tex. 
Gulfport, Miss. 
Pascagoula, Miss. 
Port Eads, La. 


A9 


generally in large numbers, in the following 


Bankia (Bankiella) mexicana Bartsch. U.S. Nat’l Mus. Bull. 122, 1922, 
Dei) pisses p30) fig. 2. 
This species, found in test blocks from Mazatlan and Topolobampo, 
Mexico, resembles Bankia setacea in size and destructiveness. 


Fic. 16—Bankia setacea 12 INcHES LONG IN TEST BLOCK FROM Coos 


Bay, ORE. 


BLockK PLACED JUNE, 1921; 


REMOVED OCTOBER, 1922. 


50 ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Bankia (Neobankia) zeteki Bartsch. U.S. Nat’l Mus. Bull. 122, 1922, p. 
o@ PLO ands0; tiger 

This species, found in test blocks only at Coco Solo, Canal Zone, is a 
destructive species of apparently limited range. 

Several undescribed species of Bankia have been identified and will later 
be described. For convenience, as in the case of the genus Teredo, they are 
referred to by letter in the following tables showing their distribution: 


Bankia (Bankia) sp. I Clapp. 


Jupiter Inlet, Fla. Tampa, Fla. 
Miami, Fla. Pensacola, Fla. 
St. Petersburg, Fla. 


Bankia (Bankia) sp. K Clapp. 


Fajardo, Porto Rico. San Juan, Porto Rico. 

Bankia (Bankia) sp. T Clapp. 
Guantanamo, Cuba. San Pedro de Mazoris, San Do- 
San Juan, Porto Rico. mingo. 
Mayaguez, Porto Rico. San Domingo, San Domingo. 
Port au Prince, Haiti. Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 


St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 
Bankia (Bankiella) sp. X Clapp. 


Mayaguez, Porto Rico. Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 
Port au Prince, Haiti. 


Bankia sp. C Clapp. 


Jupiter Inlet, Fla. Gulfport, Miss. 
Pensacola, Fla. 


Martesia 


Comparatively little is known regarding this genus of wood borers, and 
since there is so much confusion regarding specific identification it has been 
thought advisable to show the distribution of the entire genus rather than 
to attempt to divide it into species. 

The rate of destruction by Martesia is not so rapid as that by some of the 
shipworms under favorable conditions, though from pile specimens received 
from Snead’s Island, Tampa Bay and from test blocks from Cavite, Philip- 
pine Islands, it appears possible that in these locations a pile might-be de- 
stroyed in less than two years. 

Martesia seems to be less affected by creosote than other molluscan borers, 
as is shown by its having sunk a barge built of heavily creosoted lumber 
(24 pounds, per cubic foot) in a few months. Wood sheathing with a layer 
of tarred felt under it has also been penetrated by these animals, and it 
seems probable that the only sure protection against them is metal sheath- 
ing or concrete or metal casing. 

Martesia has been found in the following harbors: 


Charleston, S. C. Guantanamo, Cuba. 

St. Petersburg, Fla. San Juan, Porto Rico. 

Snead’s Island, Fla. Mayaguez, Porto Rico. 

Tampa, Fla. Coco Solo, Canal Zone. 

Cedar Key, Fla. Mazatlan, Mexico. 

Pensacola, Fla. ; Pearl Harbor, Territory of Hawaii. 
Ft. Morgan, Mobile Bay, Ala. Nawiliwili, Territory of Hawaii. 
Pascagoula, Miss. Cavite, Philippine Islands. 


Galveston, Tex. 


MOLLUSCA 51 


Martesia striata Linn.* (Plate XIV, Figs. 86-90). 


This species has occurred occasionally in the blocks from Pearl Harbor, 
rarely more than three or four small specimens, of a maximum length of 
2 cm., occurring in any one block. That it is of economic importance in 
this locality has been shown in an earlier paper (Kofoid and Miller, 1923), 
where instances were cited and figured of damage to piling, and of penetra- 
tion through redwood sheathing and an inside layer of tarred ship’s felt. 

Burrows attributed to this species were also found in one of the blocks 
from Nawiliwili, although the animals themselves had been lost out before 
the block was sent in, thus precluding certain identification. 

At Cavite attack by this species on the test blocks has been rapid and 
extremely destructive, the damage by Teredo at this locality, although con- 
siderable, being secondary to that occasioned by Martesia. Blocks exposed 
four months or longer were usually in a crumbling condition, the surface 
being riddled by small Martesia, mostly less than 2 cm. in length. The 
deeper portions of the block were at the same time penetrated by the 
longer burrows of Teredo.* 


*Wood Boring Mollusks from the Hawaiian, Samoan and Philippine Islands, (Univ. Calif. 
Publ. Zool., V. 26, No. 7 


—— i 
aur oe 


Hi Ais 
ie 


KXPLANATION OF PLATES* 


PLATE I 


Chelura insulae, and Limnoria andrewsi 


Fig. 1. Chelura insulae, male, from Tutuila, Samoa. x 17. 
2. Chelura insulae, female, from Tutuila, Samoa. x 17. 


5, 4 and 5. Limnoria andrewsi from Tutuila, Samoa. Dorsal, lateral and 
ventral views of female carrying advanced embryos in brood pouch. 
Dinesh 

(By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 


PLATE II 


Fic. 6. Portion of a 3%” x 3%” x 6” test block submerged 8 months at Tutuila, 
showing damage done by Limnoria andrewsi and Chelura insulae. The 
ends of a few Teredo burrows have been exposed. x %4. 


7. All that remained of a 2” x 34%” x 5” test block submerged 8 months in 
Honolulu Harbor. The major damage was cccasioned by Limnoria 
andrewsi; Limnoria lignorum and Chelura insulae were also present 
in the block. All Teredo were dead as a result of exposure of their bur- 
rows by the crustacean borers. x %. 


8. Portion of block from Tutuila, showing specimens of Chelura insulae in 
place in burrows. One Limnoria andrewsi is seen in place near lower 
left corner. x 5. 


(By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 


PLATE III 


Fic. 9. Teredo parksi from Pearl Harbor, exterior of right valve. x 7. 
10. Same, interior of right valve. 
11. Same, outer face of pallet. 
12. Same, inner face of pallet. 
18. Shells of Teredo parksi from Cavite. x 5. 
14. Pallets of Teredo parksi from Cavite. x 5. 
15. Shells of Teredo parksi from Honolulu Harbor. x 5. 
16. Pallets of Teredo parksi from Honolulu Harbor. x 5. 
17. Shells of Teredo parksi from Tutuila. x 5. 
18. Pallets of Teredo parksi from Tutuila. x 5. 
(By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 


*Acknowledgment of the thanks of the committee is here made to the 
Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass.; the Academy of Science of 
St. Louis, Mo.; and the University of California Publications in Zoology 
for permission to use the engravings as indicated. 


53 


54 


ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


PLATE IV 


Teredo furcillatus Miller 
Teredo samoaensis Miller 


Fic. 19. Teredo furcillatus from Tutuila, exterior of right valve of the type. x 10. 


FIG, 


FIG. 


FIG. 


20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 


24, 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 


34, 


35. 
36. 
37. 


40. 


Al. 


29s 
30. 
dl. 
32. 
30. 


38. 
39. 


42. 
43. 
44, 
45. 
46. 
47. 


Same, interior of right valve. 
Same, outer face of pallet. 
Same, inner face of pallet. 


Serie: of pallets of Teredo furcillatus from Tutuila, selected to show 
variations. x 7. 


Teredo samoaensis from Tutuila, exterior of right valve of the type. x 10. 
Same, interior of right valve. 

Same, outer face of pallet. 

Same, inner face of pallet. 


Series of pallets of Teredo samoaensis from Tutuila, aélacted tu show vari- 
ations. x 7. 
(By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 


PLATE V 


Teredo affinis Deshayes 
Teredo trulliformis Miller 


Teredo affinis from Nawiliwili, exterior of right valve. x 10. 

Same, interior of right valve. 

Same, outer face of pallet. 

Same, inner face of pallet. 

Series of pallets of Teredo affinis from Nawiliwili, selected to show 
variations. x 10. 

Teredo trulliformis from Honolulu Harbor, exterior of right valve of the 
type. x 10. 

Same, interior of right valve. 

Same, outer face of pallet. 

Same, inner face of pallet. 

(By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 


PLATE VI 
Teredo bartschi ‘Clapp 


Pallets of Teredo bartschi, dry, showing distorted chitinous portion. x 10. 

Pallets showing normal condition of the chitinous portion. Type, Mus. 
Comp. Zool., No. 45301. x 12. 

ee showing position in relation to the internal lamellae of the tuhe. 
x 10. 

Destruction caused by Teredo bartschi in test block submerged eight 
weeks. Natural size. 


PLATE VII 
Teredo bartschi Clapp 

Exterior of right valve.: Type, Mus. Comp. Zool., No. 45301. x 12. 
Exterior of left valve. Type. x 12. 
Interior of left valve. Type. x 12. 
Interior of right valve. Type. x 12. 
Dental ridges of the anterior portion. x 200. 
Dental ridges of the median portion. x 200. 


FIG. 


FIG, 


FIG. 


FIG. 


FIG. 


48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54, 


55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 


61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 


67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 


de 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
(Ug 
78. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES 


PLATE VIII 
(All figures reduced 5/16) 
Teredo portoricensis Clapp 


Denticulate ridges of the anterior portion. x 100. 
Denticulate ridges of the anterior-median portion. x 100. 
Pallets. x 14. 
Exterior of right valve. x 14. 
Exterior of left valve. x 14. 
Interior of left valve. x 14. 
Interior of right valve. x 14. 
(By permission of Academy of Science of St. Louis.) 


PLATE IX 
Teredo batilliformis Clapp 


Exterior of right valve. x 14. 
Exterior of left valve. x 14. 
Interior of left valve. x 14. 
Interior of right valve. x 14. 
Pallet, outer face. x 14. 
Pallet, inner face. x 14. 
(By permission of Amer, Acad. Arts and Sci.) 


PLATE X 
Teredo somersi Clapp 


Exterior of right valve. x 14. 
Exterior of left valve. x 14. 
Interior of left valve. x 14. 
Interior of right valve. x 14. 
Pallet, outer face. x 14. 
Pallet, inner face. x 14. 
(By permission of Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci.) 


PLATE XI 


Teredo batilliformis, denticulate ridges, anterior area. x 130. 
Teredo batilliformis, denticulate ridges, anterior-median area. x 1380 
Teredo somersi, denticulate ridges, anterior area. x 130. 
Teredo somersi, denticulate ridges, anterior-median area. x 130. 

(By permission of Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci.) 


PLATE XII 
(All figures reduced 3/7) 
Teredo johnsoni Clapp 


Denticulate ridges of the anterior portion. x 130. 
Denticulate ridges of the anterior-median portion. x 180. 
Pallets. x 138. 
Posterior, portion of the tube. x 13. 
Exterior of right valve. x 138. 
Exterior of left valve. x 138. 
Interior of left valve. x 13. 
Interior of right valve. x 13. 
(By permission of Academy of Science of St. Louis.) 


56 


Fig. 79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 


Fic. 86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 


90. 


PLATE XIII 
(All figures reduced 3/7) 
Teredo fulleri Clapp > 


Denticulate ridges of the anterior portion. x 125, 
Denticulate ridges of the anterior-median portion. x 12 
Pallets. x 12. ‘6 
Exterior of right valve. x 17. —_ 
Exterior of left valve. x 17. 
Interior of left valve. x 17. 
Interior of right valve. x 17. 
(By permission of Academy of Science of St. Louis.) 


PLATE XIV 


Martesia striata from Pearl Harbor, dorsal view. x oe 
Same, lateral view. 
Same, ventral view. 


Split section of a test block eubmeeead 5 arene at 
Martesia striata in place in burrows. The burrows 
careous lining are those of Teredo. x 9/10. 

Portion of the surface of a block submerged 9 months at 
destruction by Martesia striata. x 9/10. a oe 


(By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 


4“ 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 3 Fic. 4 


CHELURA INSULAE AND LIMNORIA ANDREWSI 
(Page 57) FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 53 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


PLATE II 


} 


Fic. 7 


Fic. 8 


TYPICAL WORKINGS OF LIMNORIA AND CHELURA 


(Page 58) 


XPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 53 


19} 


FOR 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER : PLATE III 


Fig. 9 Fic. 10 Fics 12 


Fig. 13 Fic. 14 


Fic. 15 Fic. 16 


Pic. 17 Fic. 18 


TEREDO PARKSI 


FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE 


EE PAGE 53 


(Page 59) 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 21 


Fic. 28 


TEREDO FURCILLATUS AND TEREDO SAMOAENSIS 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 (Page 60) 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATH V 


Fic. 33 


Fic 34 Fig, 35 Fic. 36° Fic. 37 


TEREDO AFFINIS AND TEREDO TRULLIFORMIS 


FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 
(Page 61) 


PLATE VI MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 38 FIG: 39 


Fic. 40 


TEREDO BARTSCHI 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 


(Page 62) 


S—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE VII 


MARINE STRUCTURE 


Fic. 43 


Fic. 44 


TEREDO BARTSCHI 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGP 54 


(Page 63) 


PLATE VIII MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 48 Fic. 49 Fic. 50 


Fic. 51 Fia. 52 


Fig. 53 GSTs 


TEREDO PORTORICENSIS 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 


(Page 64) 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATH IX 


Fic. 60 


TEREDO BATILLIFORMIS 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 


PLATE X MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 61 Fic. 62 


Fic. 63 Fic. 64 


Fic. 65 Fic. 66 


TEREDO SOMERSI 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 


(Page 66) 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE XI 


Fic. 69 Fic. 70 


TEREDO BATILLIFORMIS AND TEREDO SOMERSI 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 


(Page 67) 


PUATH Sil MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 71 Fic. 72 Fie. 73 


Fic. 74 Fic. 75 Fic. 76 


Fic. 77 Fic. 78 


TEREDO JOHNSONI 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 


(Page 68) 


MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE XIII 


Fic. 79 Fic. 80 Fic. 81 


Fic. 82 Fic. 83 


Fig. 85 


TEREDO FULLERI 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 56 


(Page 69) 


PLATE XIV MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER 


Fic. 86 Fic. 87: Fic. 88 


Fig. 89 


Fic. 90 


MARTESIA STRIATA 
FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 56 


(Page 70) 


x 


CHAPTER IV 


ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK 


Crustacea 


Some species of Sphaeroma are found in mud and soft rock, but so far as 
is indicated by records reaching the Committee they have not damaged 
masonry structures. 


Mollusca 


There are several genera and a large number of species of rock boring 
mollusks found in all-parts of the world. 


There has been much discussion as to whether these animals did their 
boring by mechanical or chemical means, or a combination of the two. It 
was at first thought to be impossible for so fragile a structure as the shell of 
one of these animals to penetrate hard rock, and that consequently the action 
must be chemical. The method of boring used by the family Pholadidae was 
described by a Dutch merchant, Leendert Bomme, in 1778, (W. Vrolik, 
Comptes Rendus, 1853, 36:797) as purely mechanical without the aid of 
any acid. This was further demonstrated about 1840 by finding these ani- 
mals boring in mica schist which could not have been dissolved by acid. 


Some species of rock borers working in limestone, such as the sponges 
and polycheate worms, in addition to some species of mollusks, do un- 
doubtedly use chemical means of boring. 


While rock borers are very widely distributed, no reports have reached 
the Committee of the destruction of stone masonry harbor structures by 
rock borers, but the breakwater at Plymouth, England, is reported to have 
been damaged by them. There is a possibility of the destruction of masonry 
when the stone is soft and the borers active. (Fig. 17.) 


Only two authentic reports have reached the Committee of attack on con- 
crete structures, but in both cases serious damage occurred. 


The La Boca dock in the Panama Canal Zone was built by the French 
Company in 1898 on cylinder piers 5 meters in diameter, incased in a metal 
cofferdam which was left in place. There is no record of the materials or 
method of construction, but there are several concrete structures on shore 
in the vicinity which were built at the same time and supposedly with the 
same materials. These structures are in excellent condition. The metal 
cofferdam corroded and through the holes thus formed the borers attacked 
the concrete. In 1922 the damage was so great that the dock was con- 
demned. It is very probable that the chemical disintegration of the concrete 
was much accelerated by the work of the borers, and, conversely, that the 
destructive work of the borers was assisted:by the softening of the concrete 
by chemical action. 


The animal responsible for most of this damage was the Lithophaga 
aristata Dillwyn, but Mr. Zetek, specialist in tropical entomology, on the 
staff of the Canal organization, reports a number of other rock borers in the 
Canal Zone in part as follows: 


“The Pholadidae are not the only rock-boring mollusks we have. They 
are the principal and most destructive ones. 


ace 


72 ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK 


“We have Carditamera affinis Brod. (family Carditidae), which also 
bores into rock along the shore, and also members of the genus Saxicava 
(family Saxicavidae) are found in rocks. I am not positive of the species 
of Saxicava that we have here, but I feel reasonably certain both pur- 
purascens Sby. and solida Sby. are present in our fauna. 

“In the Pholas-type of boring mollusk, the work is done by means of a 
filing or rasping action of the shell, which has a row of hard spines or 
ridges near the front edge. They usually avoid very hard rocks. There 
is no solution-process involved; it is all mechanical rasping, and those that 
are in the harder kinds of rocks have their ‘drilling’ parts quite dull when 
old, whereas those in the softer rocks, maintain them quite slender and 
sharp. . 

“In the preceding paragraph I omitted the genus Petricola, of which we 
have represented in our fauna the species denticulata Sby. and robusta Sby. 
They are rock-borers. There is very little data available on the actual 
destructiveness of many of these species. The Petricolas belong to the 
family of Petricolidae. 

“In Lithophaga (syn. Lithodomus) there is no structure present with 
which the mollusk could scrape or bore. Instead, there is a special gland, 
present only in those species that bore into rocks, which secretes a sub- 
stance which has a solvent action on the rock material, at any rate, that is 
the presumption and it appears to be true. The solution turns litmus pink. 

“Such species, which secrete-.a rock-solvent, are, of necessity, protected 
by a thick covering (periostracum), as otherwise the solvent would also 
attack the shell-covering of the animal. The Pholas type has no such a 
covering. In Saxicava there is a periostracum but it is much eroded and 
could not protect the shell if there was any rock-solvent secreted. 

“It is remarkable that a mollusk, when very young, should purposely take 
refuge in a small crevice or cavity, and make this its voluntary prison for 
life, that it should enlarge its cell as growth made demands for more space, 
aie yet, to be unable even, in many cases, to turn about in its snugly fitting 

ome. . 

“As to the sponges and worms that burrow into rocks, I have very little 
data on our local species that have these habits. We have a sponge, a Cliona, 
which usually attacks oyster shells. Sollas quotes Topsent (Arch. Zool. 
Exp. (8) viii p. 36, to the effect that as borers into oyster shells, the 
Clionidae may be reckoned as being of practical importance, and in some 
cases they even devastate the rocks, penetrating to a depth of some feet and 
causing them to crumble away.” 


The other case of damage to concrete occurred at Los Angeles, Cal., and 
is described in the 3rd Annual Progress Report of the San Francisco Com- 
mittee, 1923, as follows: 


“In the work of widening the channel in Los Angeles Harbor, about 
November 138, 1922, it became necessary to remove some old wooden piling 
which had been jacketed some years previously with concrete. In looking 
over these piles, Mr. Hughes observed that some of the jackets had been 
attacked by borers, and investigated further. Of 18 jackets examined at 
this location, known as the old Fish Cannery Wharf, across the channel 
from the foot of 5th Street, San Pedro (see map of Los Angeles Harbor), 
16 were found to be more or less attacked; about 5 were considered to be 
badly attacked (6 borers or more per square foot of exposed surface) ; the 
others contained fewer, and some only an occasional borer. The two jackets 
which did not contain borers stood in shallower water than the others. 

“The exact date at which these piles were driven could not be determined, 
but it was probably several years prior to 1909, at which time it became 
necessary to jacket them with concrete to protect them from Limnoria or 
other wood borers. The jackets had accordingly been in place 14 years. 
The length of time during which they were actually exposed to attack by 
the rock borers, however, is probably considerably less than this, as the 
form lumber was left in place outside the jackets, and would deter the 
pholad borers from entering the concrete until the encasing wood was 
destroyed by wood borers. 


73 


PHOLADS 


AGUAMOS 1IDAOG DUaDYIOLISDH UNV ANDIGUO YiDINISLG (Sn1aING) 
pbnydoywyT — susuog Xd AILVNOdNTT “VT ‘ASQOHLHDI'T SLATODIYN LSM GNNOUW dVU-dIyY Wout ANOLY JO SNAWIOGAS—)T 


“SIA 


74 


ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK 


“One of these piles was available for examination a month later by the 
junior author (Dr. R. C. Miller) of this report. The jacket was above 
seven feet long, having extended from mud line up to about mean low water. 
It consisted of cement mortar with no coarse aggregate (see screen test 
below), averaging 2% inches in thickness, and sufficiently hard that some 
difficulty was experienced in breaking it up with a 15-pound iron bar to 
secure samples. 

“The outside form lumber was still partly in place. It had originally 
consisted of 1-inch redwood, as seen at one place where it had been protected 
by a cleat. Elsewhere it had been badly attacked by Limnoria and Teredo 
diegensis, so that only a thin shell of it remained adhering to the concrete. 
This thin layer of wood, however, still covered all of the jacket except 
about one foot at the top, and one corner, where the form had sprung apart, 
leaving a gap through which the rock borers could enter. In this area 
nearly 40 of the borers occurred, averaging 7 or 8 to the square foot. 

“The mollusks were in general a little larger than a man’s thumb. The 
largest one found occupied a burrow measuring 1% inches in diameter at 
its widest portion. Two borers in this jacket had penetrated the concrete 
until they came in contact with the wood within, but none had actually 
bored into the wood. One indeed had turned and continued boring in the 
concrete parallel to the surface of the wood, to avoid entering the latter. 

“Mr. Hughes reported that, of the jackets examined by him, one other 
was attacked more heavily than this in proportion to the surface exposed; 
but it consisted of a very poor concrete, badly disintegrated. 

“The discovery of the borers in concrete at this locality led to examination 
of other concrete jacketed piles in the harbor. 

“Mr. Ludlow stated that, of 12 pile jackets examined by him at the old 
Blinn Lumber Company Wharf, opposite Berth 229 in Los Angeles Harbor, 
3 were rather badly attacked by borers. Mr. Sadler reported that he had 
broken open 12 concrete jackets at the First Street Ferry landing, of which 
3 were found to be attacked, one quite badly, the others containing from 3 
to 6 borers each. Of 75 such jackets examined by Mr. Sadler at the 
Kerckhoff-Cuzner Wharf, about 50 per cent were found to contain borers, 
and about 20 per cent were quite badly attacked. 

“Dr. Miller had the privilege of going over this ground again with Messrs. 


_Hughes, Ludlow and Sadler on December 16. A number of other jackets 


were broken open, and a considerable quantity of specimens secured. 

“The species occasioning most of the damage was found to be Pholadidea 
penita Conrad, known commonly as the “rock clam.” (Fig. 18.) It occurred 
from two feet above mean low water to one foot below, which was the lowest 
level at which we were able to work. It doubtless similarly occurs on down 
to the mud, even in deep water, as it has been dredged in San Francisco 
Bay at a depth of fifty fathoms. 

“This borer, unlike Teredo, has the body entirely enclosed within the two 
valves of the shell, which are ovate, tapering somewhat posteriorly and 
ending in leathery flaps. During the period of active boring life, the foot 
protrudes through a rather large anterior gape between the valves; but 
after cessation of boring, and perhaps in the interim between periods of 
boring activity, this gape is closed over by a calcareous plate, giving the 
borer the appearance seen in the photographs. It will be noted that the 
anterior portion of the shell is ribbed and somewhat denticulated, either for 
rasping purposes, or to grip the sides of the burrow. 

“This species is edible, and is used for food in localities where it occurs 
in sufficient abundance to make worth while the labor of removing it from 
its rocky domicile, which is usually done by means of iron bars. 

“Another boring species found in concrete pile jackets examined by us 
here was Platyodon cancellata Conrad, a near relative of the soft-shelled 
clam (Mya arenaria). This borer normally inhabits stiff mud and clay. 
It was found in the pile jackets only sparsely, and only in decidedly poor 
concrete. 

“A third species occurring in the concrete jackets was the so-called 
‘nestler,’ Petricola carditoides Conrad, which is believed not to bore on its 
own account, but to inhabit natural cavities or holes bored by other 
organisms. 


PHOLADS 15 


“As regards extent of the damage occasioned by borers in concrete, a 
review of the data assembled by Mr. Hughes, Mr. Ludlow, Mr. Sadler and 
Dr. Miller, indicates that, of concrete jacketed piles at four different loca- 
tions in Los Angeles Harbor, in fact at every point in the inner harbor 
where such piles exist, about 50 per cent have been more or less attacked, 
of which rather more than one-fifth have been very considerably bored. Of 
those not attacked, a number stood so well inshore as to be but little exposed 
to the action of the borers. If all such piles were eliminated from the count, 
the percentage of jackets damaged would be considerably higher. 


“These jackets were in general of cement mortar poured around the piles 
by setting forms after the piles were driven. Some of the jackets had given 
service in sea water over a period of fourteen years. The hardness of the 
mortar was such that a sample of the best mortar in which the borers were 
found could be readily cut with the thumb nail. 


“Mr. A. A. M. Russell, Testing Engineer, made a crushing test of the 
best sample submitted, finding the crushing strength of a specimen 
24%” x 3%" x4%” high to be 1726 pounds per square inch. This sample 
when crushed showed an encased sand pocket from which the aggregate 
could be readily picked with the fingers. Mr. Russell reports the grading 
of the aggregate, as follows: 


SCREEN PERCENTAGES 
NN Ee ee aa ca piss 04, eka ante eavicinmeis ska) del ® 
eT er ee oi dae eek che ce klslee ce DLS 
SN ee to re a hace tees haves eee LOOT 
ee einai e sia vesecs cae LOOT 
PM I a acalss seve ce csvwseces S04 


Fic. 18—-PHOLADS IN CONCRETE C’ASINGS AT LOS ANGELES, CAL. 


76 ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK 


“Approximately 93 per cent of the total aggregate passed the 50 mesh 
screen. 

“It has commonly occurred in jacketing piles in place, that the concrete 
has been ‘drowned’ either by the presence of too much water in the mix or 
by depositing the material in the water, causing segregation and laitance 
and rendering such structures especially susceptible to borer action. 
Whether or not concrete of greater hardness, containing approximately 90 
per cent of assorted aggregate in excess of the 50 mesh screen as contrasted 
with mortar having only 7% above 50 mesh, remains for further investiga- 
tion. An inspection of concrete jacketed piles at Pier 34 and at Fisher- 
man’s Wharf at San Francisco failed to disclose borers. The type of piles 
selected was similar in construction to the Los Angeles type in that they 
were jacketed in the water, but the aggregate consisted of rock and sand 
and produced a fairly sound concrete. It is possible that these piles have 
not been exposed to attack on account of the mud shores of San Francisco 
Bay. However, the piles at Fisherman’s Wharf are located at the inner 
end of the Golden Gate within one-half mile of Fort Mason, at which 
location rock borers have been reported in shale rocks.” 


These two instances show the possibility of serious damage to concrete 
structures by both types of boring mollusks, but the known wide distribu- 
tion of these animals and the fact that only these two instances of damaged 
structures have been reported would seem to indicate that the danger, while 
existing, does not appear to be very great. Careful inspections should be 
made of concrete structures where these rock borers are known to exist, and 
further biological study should be made of them. 


CHAPTER V 


TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED 


Statements frequently appear that certain tropical and other woods are 
immune from attack by marine borers. All available information on this 
subject has been studied to see whether any of these claims could be con- 
sidered as proven to a sufficient degree to justify the importation of timber. 


In 1913, Mr. A. K. Armstrong at the Forest Products Laboratory, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, prepared a tabulation of all service records and records 
of tests which could be obtained as to the resistance of unprotected timber 
to the attack of marine borers. This report, the reports of the Institution 
of Civil Engineers “Deterioration of Structures in Sea-Water,” of 1920, 
1921 and 1922, as well as records obtained from other reliable sources, 
furnish the basis for the information following. The Forest Products 
Laboratory report contains 771 items of which 312 refer to timbers of the 
temperate zone generally recognized as not being resistant to borer attack, 
while the remainder are principally tropical or sub-tropical timbers. 


There is great difficulty in the study of tropical timbers on account of the 
different local names given to these timbers, and therefore it has been 
necessary to eliminate from consideration some of those of which the 
botanical name is unknown. Since either the structures required early re- 
placement or the tests showed failures, it is considered necessary for pres- 
ent purposes to include in this report only the timbers which show some 
resistance and can be made available in this market, or those which have 
been more or less widely recommended for resistance to borer attack and 
which do not have records which confirm the claims made for them. 


Cottonwood 


On account of its rapid decay and lack of strength, cottonwood has not 
generally been considered a structural timber, but its record at least justi- 
fies tests to determine whether it will resist the attack of marine borers. 


In 1904 the Alaska Central Railway constructed a wharf at Seward, on 
Resurrection Bay, Alaska. It was supposed that there were no marine 
borers in the Bay and the wharf was built of unprotected native spruce 
timber. After about 18 months’ service this wharf failed under a load of 
not exceeding 500 tons, and it was found that the piles were thoroughly 
honeycombed by shipworms. On account of the necessity for prompt re- 
placement, and in the hope that the timber would better resist attack, many 
of the shorter spruce piles (45 feet to 70 feet) were replaced with cotton- 
wood. No sign of attack could be found in these piles two years later when 
the wharf was burned. 


A similar failure, in Uyak Bay, Alaska, resulted in a new wharf being 
built entirely on cottonwood piles, which are reported to be in good condition 
after 10 years’ service, while in another arm of Uyak Bay a cannery wharf 
on cottonwood piles was in good condition after 28 years’ service. 

A test made by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway at Seattle 
did not give good results. A cottonwood test pile was heavily attacked in a 


fel 


78 TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED 


few months, and a similar result was obtained in a test made by the South- 
ern Pacific Railway at Oakland, Cal. Other tests are being made. The 
Northern Pacific Railway report a barked test piece to have been heavily 
attacked and an unbarked piece to have contained only one Bankia which 
entered through a knot. 


Palmettos, Mangroves and Palms 


These timbers are open to the same objections as cottonwood, but the 
records quoted below justify considering them, where readily available, for 
use in light structures. If cut off at low water decay is prevented, and 
much longer life than can be obtained from the pines is to be expected: 


COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME einen SERVICE REPORT 


RECORD 
Palmetto Sabal palmetto Daytona, Fla. 30 years service 
Palmetto Sabal palmetto Nassau, Bahamas 8 years good condition 
Palmetto Sabal palmetto Egmont, Fla. 10 years light ship- 
bts worm attack 
Palmetto Sabal palmetto Mississippi City 1b eae light at- 
ac 
Palmetto Sabal palmetto Pensacola, Fla. Attack by Martesia 
Palmetto Sabal palmetto Galveston, Tex. Light attack—50 
years life expected 
Palm Species unknown Tampico, Mexico 20 years 
Palm Species unknown Haiti 35 years 
Palm Species unknown Santo Domingo 6-7 years 
Palm Species unknown Guatemala Long service 
Mangrove Species unknown Galveston, Tex. Not attacked 
Mangrove—Black Rhizophora racemosa Guayaquil, Ec. Long service 
Mangrove—Red fhizophoranatalen- Jamaica 10-12 years 
sis 
Mangrove Rhizophora mangle Haiti 20 years 


A palmetto pole used for carrying test blocks at Castle Pinckney in the 
harbor of Charleston, 8. C., contained a few Teredo navalis and Martesia 
after about 7 months’ immersion. The Teredo were small and did not seem 
to thrive, but the indications are that Martesia will attack this timber as 
well as any other. 


A considerable number of teredine borers were found in test blocks of 
cocoanut palm immersed for a few months at St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. 


Eucalyptus 


Statements are frequently made that various species of the Eucalyptus 
family resist attack. Some species are more durable in borer infested 
waters than are the pines and oaks ordinarily used for harbor works, but, 
as will be seen by referring to the tabulated record, page 79, none of those 
reported are immune from attack. 


Eucalyptus propinqua and Eucalyptus punctata are both known in some 
localities as “gray gum.” 


EUCALYPTUS 


SERVICE RECORD OF EUCALYPTUS 


Source of Location of 
Common Name Botanical Name Timber Structure 
ATG GEST Eucalyptus rostrata........ Australia... Burrard Inlet, B. ©... .. 4. 
PUREE shad acaiie tre Eucalyptus marginata.....Australia..Port Moody, B. C........ 
larrahion sc. 6.5 10 eee aah Te Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Sunderland, England...... 
PEL 5 ae Ae aA Om ee Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Plymouth, England....... 
ANEN gers) 0B ae Spee Se dene ae a Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .English Channel.......... 
array ee ew heck eo Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Table Bay, So. Africa..... 
2S Se A ae Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. . Mossel Bay, So. Africa... . 


PARTON PA ook vce ss Eucalyptuc marginata..... Australia. 


.Port Elizabeth, So. Africa. 


19 


Report of 
Service 
10-12 years F 
16 years...G 
5 years....D 
20 years...G 
30 years. ..G 
3-4 years...F 
12 years....F 
5-8 years...F 
2-20 years. .F 
10-20 years.F 
5-6 years... F 
5 years.....F 
2 years.....F 
2% years...F 
2% years...F 
10 years....F 
234 years..A 
10 years....F 
6-8 years...F 
6-8 years...F 
234 years...A 
10 years. ..G 
5-8 years...F 
7 years....D 
2 years.....A 
4 years.....F 
10 years... .F 
3 years....G 
10-15 years. F 
10 years....F 
5-8 years...F 
D Years... . A 


8 years.....F 
5-8 years...F 


5 years.....F 
214-15years.F 
7 years....G 
7 years.... 


G 

3-4 years...F 
5 years.....F 

7 years.....A 

8 years.....F 

14 years....F 

wt years..... D 
7 years....1D 


ATT AIPH MENT. 2h oo 8 Sa Seis Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .East London, So. Africa... 
Jerr pee ket aie a i cceve oe Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia... Durban, So. Africa....... 
ATW S06 teak Sys an ee |e Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia se Aden pArabiaw..0.c).4 os: 
IAECAM A ameee tate sac oes Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia..Bombay, India........... 
SALTO = Rees ea ng oe Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia..Columbo, Ceylon......... 
STEW g 9 Nee ok ast hee ae ne Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Chinawangto, China...... 
Forest Red Gum or Grey 
Gumrrergeee eae ee Eucalyptus tereticornis..... California..Los Angeles, Cal......... 
Forest Red Gum or Grey 
ERUEED en ait ai aes RR Eucalyptus tereticornis..... Californis..San Diego, Cal’........... 

IME AMATNA GUNS oe. oen2 Seve sls Eucalyptus viminalia...... California..San Francisco, Cal........ 
OE rata Cries g <ysis, «, goto sm Eucalyptus viminalia...... California..San Diego, Cal........... 
NV NEGGLCAAITED ace, haus Gictevolx.¢ Eucalyptus viminalia...... Australia. . Victoria, Australia........ 
VET GE CQ UIIIN n.- cjc:fere, 60.0 0,006 Eucalyptus viminalia...... Australia. .Port Phillip, Australia... .. 
ede GrOM ATE 6 io xe cov 0, Eucalyptus sideroxylon..... California..San Francisco, Cal........ 
Red Tron Darks... cos c,0.0 «<< Eucalyptus sideroxylon..... Cahfornia..San Diego, Cal........... 
Hed MTOR DATA |. .u0.65.016 02a Eucalyptus siderophloia....Australia..Port Elizabeth, Australia. . 
Red Tronbark.. ..<... cse0.<< Eucalyptus siderophloia,...Australia..Hobsons Bay, Australia... 
Red Ironbark. .........«- Eucalyptus siderophloia....Australia..Brisbane, Australia....... 
ede FOUGATK =) 644 u.oclex cs Eucalyptus siderophloia....Australia..Peterson Rio............. 
Ned Ironbark... 22s -..0.- Eucalyptus siderophloia....Australia. .Sydney.................. 
SUTIN Gr ea a ae eee Eucalyptus corynocalyx....California..Oceanside, Cal........... 
PUMP aT ee sas, <x «hace, « Eucalyptus corynocalyx....Australia..Freemantle, Australia..... 
Blackbutt or Flintwood...Hucalyptus pilularis....... Australia. .Queensland, Australia..... 
Blackbutt or Flintwood...Hucalyptus pilularis....... Australia. .Port Elizabeth, So. Africa. 
LSD heen Bat aie Siete a Eucalyptus diversicolor..... Australia. . Robbin Island, So. Africa.. 
JESLSTS RY A buat ge I a a Eucalyptus diversicolor..... Australia..Table Bay, So. Africa...... Lyearonce F 
PORTE ME RTE ass Sere ons cis c Eucalyptus diversicolor..... Australia. . Mossel Bay, So. Africa.... 
UES 5 deat Aa ERS A Eucalyptus diversicolor..... Australia. .Port Elizabeth, So. Africa. 
IGE ded cegeee Soe Oe Eucalyptus diversicolor..... Australia.. Durban, So. Africa....... 
SEI eee te etter vl. Te sates Eucalyptus diversicolor..... Australia. .Hong Kong, China....... 
Ses CRARTIe ke eee neo ee Eucalyptus globulus....... California. .16 locations in California .. 
Bite Garry See ae Mahe Ss sc Eucalyptus globulus....... Tasmania.. Dover, England.......... 
VN AN TNS. etree ss a os Zohn Eucalyptus globulus....... Tasmania..Keyham, England........ 
PUTO? CR TUMEL eee sks oe sic s'sco's Eucalyptus globulus....... So. Africa..East London, So. Africa. . 
Lelie S CAT Wid bg bine ane ee Eucalyptus globulus....... So. Africa.. Durban, So. Africa....... 
Stringbark Gum.......... Eucalyptus obliqua........ Tasmania..Dover, England.......... 
Wieasmatere . kNceiss Selec cs Eucalyptus obliqua........ Australia. . Victoria, Australia........ 
Red Stringybark......... Eucalyptus macrorhyncha 

OL capilellatd 4) sss d a. Australia..Portland Australia....... 
Red Stringybark......... Eucalyptus macrorhyncha 

OL COPIULELLaLG ©... 2 os ciudicas Australia. . Hobsons Bay, Australia.. 
ied Stringybark. ......... Eucalyptus macrorhyncha 

OVCApiLellUlasmPs..nga ve oe Australia..Port Phillip, Australia..... 
Red Stringybark.;....... Eucalyptus macrorhyncha 

Or capicilatas.. es. s sce Australia..Tasmania, Australia...... 


Mountain Ash or Pepper- 


“Reig iy C10) yee aie ee Eucalyptus amygdalina ...Australia. . 
Box of East Gippsland... .Hucalyptus odorata........ Australia. . 
White Stringybark........ Eucalyptus eugenioides..... Australia. . 
Coast Ash, Green Top 

Ironbark or Silver Top. .Hucalyptus sieberiana...... Australia. . 
Spotted Gum............. Eucalyptus maculata....... Australia. . 
White. or Grey Ironbark...Hucalyptus paniculata..... Australia. . 


F— Failed. D—Damaged. A—Attacked. G—Good condition 


Warranbool, Australia... 
Hobsons Bay, So. Africa. . 
Hobsons Bay, So. Africa.. 


Hobsons Bay, So. Africa. . 
Queensland, Australia..... 
Auckland, New Zealand.. 


D 
D 
PiaVeCaTs = ses 
F 
F 


12 years....F 


'12)years.s... 
.7 years... 
.7 years.. 


10 years.... 


.4 years..... 


80 TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED 


Eucalyptus creba is also known as “red ironbark,” and this same species 
is also called “gray ironbark” and “‘narrow leaved ironbark.” 

Eucalyptus patens is sometimes called “blackbutt.” 

Eucalyptus lencoxylon is, in a few locations, called “blue gum.” 

Eucalyptus gigantea is sometimes called “mountain ash.” 

Eucalyptus gonicalyx is sometimes called “spotted gum.” 


Philippine Woods 


There are several timbers indigenous to the Philippine Islands which offer 
more or less resistance to the attack of shipworms. There is little evidence 
to show that any of these timbers offer a degree of resistance which ap- 
proaches total immunity from attack in Philippine waters where the ship- 
worms are very active, but it is apparent that the attack progresses slowly 
on some of them. It is possible that in cooler waters some of them might 
give long service. — 


There is quoted below a special report from the Public Works Officer of 
the Navy Department: 


“COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF PILES USED IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS’ 


“So far as can be ascertained, no very comprehensive or complete com- 
parative tests, under exact known or pre-determined conditions, have ever 
been made. However, many relative tests of piling have been made, which 
taken together with observations of results obtained on actual work, give a 
fair idea of the life, durability and teredo-resisting properties of most of 
the native woods suitable and obtainable for use as piles in salt water. At 
the present time comparative tests are being conducted jointly by the 
Quartermaster Corps of the U. S. Army and the Bureau of Forestry of the 
Insular Government. These tests are being’ conducted on certain varieties 
of woods which are suitable for piling and are common and cheap enough 
to be used on moderate priced construction, though not possessing the 
teredo-resisting properties of certain other woods which are difficult to 
obtain and so much higher in price as to make their use almost prohibitive 
except in cases where durability, regardless of cost, is the controlling factor. 

“The above-mentioned test is being made on piles of the following native 
woods: pagatpat, guijo, yacal, mangachapuy, aranga, liusin and mala- 
bayabas. As the test has been under way less than two years, it is too 
early to reach a full and definite conclusion regarding their relative dura- 
bility and desirability. Of the varieties undergoing test, liusin and mala- 
bayabas were long ago known to be teredo-resisting, though much less 
durable in this respect than mancono and dungion, which are spoken of later 
on in this report. The last reported examination of the piles under test, 
eee after same had been exposed a little over a year, gave the following 
results: 

“PAGATPAT.—Attacked by teredos to a considerable extent but not as 
much damaged as the mangachapuy, guijo and yacal. Damage superficial; 
teredos had reached a depth of from one inch to one and one-half inch. 
This wood is not common in this part of the islands but is readily obtain- 
able in the Manila market at a fairly reasonable cost. Obtained from the 
southern islands, where it is plentiful. 

“MANGACHAPUY, YACAL AND GUIJO.—These piles more severely attacked 
and damaged to a greater extent than pagatpat. Penetration by teredos 
deeper and holes slightly larger. 

““ARANGA has withstood the attacks very well so far; less damaged than 
pagatpat; one large pile scarcely damaged at all. 

“LIUSIN has also withstood the attacks of borers very well, less damaged 
than aranga but the parts of the piles exposed to the weather have suffered 
considerable damage (especially the sapwood) by insects, fungi and rot, 
although their tops were protected by a heavy coating of asphalt. This is 
a common effect in liusin, especially in piles cut during the rainy season 
when the maximum amount of sap is present. 


PHILIPPINE WOODS 81 


““MALABAYABAS piles have suffered less damage than any of the piles 
being tested. This result is what was to be expected as this wood ranks 
high among the teredo-resisting woods, though inferior to mancono and 
possibly inferior in some respects to dungon. Several other woods, known 
to be teredo-resisting to a desirable degree are either too expensive and 
searce to be specified on ordinary work or too small, crooked, gnarled or 
otherwise defective to be suitable for use as piles. 

“MANCONO (also referred to as ‘Philippine lignum-vitae’ and ‘Philip- 
pine ironwood’) is easily first among the Philippine woods as regards 
teredo-resisting properties. This wood is very heavy, hard and dense, has 
a specific gravity of 1.236 to 1.296 and the heartwood is credited with being 
practically immune from the attacks of marine borers and insects. Even 
the sapwood is teredo-resisting to a high degree, and piles of this wood 
which have been in place in salt water for over 20 years were found to have 
their sapwood only lightly attacked by teredos to a depth of about % inch. 
Mancono piles in use more than 60 years in salt water are still in excellent 
condition in several places in the southern islands. This wood is so scarce 
and expensive that but little of it reaches the Manila market and its esti- 
mated price for moderate size piling, 30 to 40 feet in length, is from $4 
to $5 per lineal foot. Of the teredo-resisting woods obtainable, dungon 
was supposed to rank next to, but considerably below, mancono, but recent 
experiments and observations indicate that malabayabas is probably equal 
and possibly superior to dungon but is more expensive. Dungon piles 
of ordinary size at present are estimated to cost $1.20 to $1.40 per lineal 
foot. Malabayabas piles of similar size are estimated to cost about $2 
per lineal foot. Malabayabas is closely related to mancono botanically 
and apparently approximates same in nearly all general physical prop- 
erties. Neither of these woods is common in the Manila market and they 
are obtained from points further south.” 


As is the case in other tropical countries these timbers have several local 
names, and their scientific nomenclature is not fully established. The fol- 
lowing information as to common and scientific names was obtained from 
Bulletin No. 14 of the Bureau of Forestry (1916) of the Philippine Govern- 
ment: 

Pagatpat, Sonneratia pagatpat Blanco is also known as bungalon, ilukab- 
ban, lukabban, palalan, pedada, pirara, palapat, and patpat. 

This timber is found in the largest quantity in the mangrove swamps of 
the Island of Mindanao but has a wide distribution in the archipelago. It is 
a fairly hard straight grained wood, easy to work, but it rusts nails and 
other iron fastenings. 

Its price in 1916 varied from 50 to 95 pesos per thousand. 

Mangachapuy, Hopea acuminata Merr. is also known as bangoran, bania- 
kan, barosingsing, dalingdingan, kaliot manggachopui, manggasinoro, siyan 
and yakal. 

Yacal, Hopea plagata Vid. is also known as banutan, batik, dalingdingan, 
gisok-gisok, haras, kaliot, malium, paniggaian, quiebra-hacha, sallapugud, 
sarabsaban, saplungan, siakal, siggai with various adjectives, and taggai. 

The wood of the two species of this genus which are very similar is hard, 
tough, heavy, and has a sharply crossed grain that makes it hard to split, 
although it saws with a clean surface. 

- The price in 1916 varied from 60 to 120 pesos per thousand. 

Guijo, Shorea guiso Blanco is also known as antam, arombi, barusingsing, 
batik, bitik, dagingdingan, daniri, giho, gisek, gisik, gisok, giso, kuriat, 
kuribu, pamayanasen, pisak, pisek, sarrai, sigai, taggai and yamban. 

The wood is moderately hard and tough, with a cross grain difficult to 
split; is liable to split and warp if not carefully seasoned; is not hard to saw 
but is difficult to work otherwise. 


82 TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED 


The price in 1916 varied from 45 to 120 pesos per thousand. 

Aranga, Homalium luzoniense F. Vill is also known as arangan, kamaga- 
hai, kamagahi, malatumbaga. 

There is little difference between the four described species of this genus. 
The wood is hard; heavy with a straight or slightly crossed grain; seasons 
without much checking or warping; is hard to saw but otherwise easy to 
work. 

The price in 1916 varied from 110 to 180 pesos per thousand. 

Liusin, Parinarium corymbosum Miq., is practically indistinguishable 
from the one other described species of the genus. The local names for 
timbers of this genus are: aningat, bakayan, barit, binggas, binggau, 
bongog, botabon, dungon-dungonan, gunaimai, ginaiang, kagemkem, 
kamilitingan, kangkangan, kapgangan, karatakat, kulatingan, lankangan, 
langog, laiusin, lumuluas, malaigang, malapiga, malapuyan, maluklik, 
mantalina, mantalingan, matamata, pantoy-use pasak, sabougkaag, sali- 
fungan, salutin, sarangan, sigaadan, tabon-tabon, takdangan, tapgas, and 
uas-uasa. 

The wocd is hard; very heavy; grain straight or slightly crossed; seasons 
without much checking but warps considerably; very difficult to work, being 
notorious for the rapidity with which it dulls tools. Most mills refuse to 
saw or plane it. The Philippine records do not show that this timber con- 
tains silica, but the description would seem to indicate a resemblance to 
Angelique and Manbarklak. 

The price in 1916 was from 100 to 140 pesos per thousand. 

Malabayabas, Tristania decorticata Merr, is one of three species of the 
genus which are commonly grouped together commercially, since there is 
no difference between them from that standpoint. It resembles and is often 
substituted for mancono. 

The local names for words of this genus are: adios, anigad, bunglo, busag, 
dinglas, hublas, malumbayabas, malapiga, taba, tiga and tinadan. 

The wood is very hard and heavy with a slightly crossed grain; seasons 
without much checking but needs to be carefully piled to prevent warping; 
hard to work but is not especially hard on tools. 

The price in 1916 ranged from 70 to 180 pesos per thousand. 

Mancono, Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves, is locally known as mala- 
piga, magkono, mangkono, tamulanan, tiga, Philippine ironwood, Philippine 
lignum-vitz, and palo de hierro. 

It is a low branching tree with seldom more than 10 meters of clear 
trunk. The wood is very hard and heavy, with the grain always crossed and 
frequently twisted and so fine that it can be burnished almost like metal. 
It does not warp badly but does heart check to some extent. The quantity 
available is not large, and the prices in 1916 were from one to one and one- 
half pesos per cubic foot, though it is estimated that the timber could be 
delivered on the beach for about 0.22 pesos per cubic foot. 

Dungon, Tarrietia sylvatica Merr, and Dungon—late Heritiera littoralis 
Dry, are practically indistinguishable species, the former growing in high 
and the latter in low land near the coasts. The local names are barit, 
bayagkabayo dumon, dungul, magayan, malarungon, palogapig, palongapoi, 
paronopin and paronapoi. 


TURPENTINE WOOD 83 


The wood is very hard, tough and flexible but not resilient; is heavy and 
often contains stony deposits in old knots and heart cracks; the grain is 
crossed and often curly; logs split deeply in seasoning; it is very difficult to 
work and dulls tools badly even when no stony deposits are encountered. 

The price in 1916 ranged from 150 to 200 pesos per thousand. 


Fic. 19—SECTION OF JUCARO PILE FROM DOLPHIN OF TEXAS OIL COMPANY, 
MATANZAS, CUBA 


Placed, 1919—Removed, 1923 


Turpentine Wood 


Australian “Turpentine Wood,” Syncarpia laurifola appears to be very 
resistant to attack but not entirely immune. The sap wood is subject to at- 
tack, but in most locations the teredo and limnoria do not seem to progress 
beyond that point. This attack on the sap wood is shown as “‘slight attack” 


84 TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED 


in the following table, which shows service records of this timber: 


Victoria, B. C. 18 years Piles slightly scarred 
Bombay, India 6 years Slight attack by Pholads 
Madras, India 24% years Slight attack by Pholads 
Madras, India 12 years Failed 

Kelue, Formosa 4 years Good 

Madras, India 12 years Failed 

New South Wales harbors 30 years Failed 

Port Hunter, Australia 61% years Good 

Sydney (6 reports) 10-48 years Shght attack 

Durban, South Africa 5 years Good 

Calcutta, India 4 years Good 

Yokohama, Japan 2 years Good 

Adelaide, Australia 30-40 years Failed 

Coff’s Harbor, Australia 1 year Attacked 

Brisbane, Australia 15 years Failed 

Auckland, N. Z. 9 years Slight attack 


It seems entirely possible that this timber would give long life in north- 
ern waters. It can be obtained in long lengths and is a good structural 
timber. 


Totara 


Podacarpus totara, a New Zealand fee shows well in the few definite 
records available. It was one of the timbers tested at Hobson’s Bay, Aus- 
tralia, and after 7 years was in good condition: in Auckland, N. Z., an in- 
spection showed piles to be in good condition after 20 years’ service, but to 
have failed at the end ‘of 35 years. 


Other Timber 


Several West Indian and Central American timbers have been reported 
from time to time as being able to resist attack, but records from other 
points show failures. Four examples of reports on timbers said at some 
points to be resistant are as follows: 


COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME SOURCE LOCATION CONDITION 


Zapotechico, chi- 


cozapate, nase-| Achras sapota Central Puerto 6-10 yrs. 
wood, nispero, America Cortez Failed 
sapodilla 

Quiebra-hacha or | Aspidosperma que- | Central San Salva- | Quick attack 
quebracho bracho America dor 


Jucaro prieto, 


black jucaro,| Bucida or | Cuba Matanzas, |2yrs. Failed 


or arare Terminalia § buceras Cuba 
Sabicu, jigue mo- 
ruro de costa} Lysiloma formosa or | Cuba Mariel, lyr. Failed 


or chocolate Lysiloma sabicu Cuba 
mahogany 


Jucaro is reported by the Florida East Coast Railway to have given good 
service, but to be difficult to obtain. Fig. 19 shows a section of a pile from 
the foundation of the marine railway at Matanzas, Cuba, after less than 
4 years’ service. 


OTHER TIMBER 85 


Greenheart—N ectandra rodioet, is a timber from Dutch Guiana and 
British Guiana which has given excellent service in many European harbors 
and has been much advertised. The service records collected are as follows: 


Trinidad 10-15 years Failed 
Georgetown, B. C. 20-25 years Failed 
Groningen, Holland 11 years Slight attack 
Friesland, Holland 18 years Slight attack 
Harlingen, Holland 9 years Good 
Gostmahorn, Holland 18 years Slight attack 
Nieuwe-Zylen 14 years Good 
Ymiden, Holland 12 years Good 
Vlessingen, Holland 10 years Slight attack 
Vilessingen, Holland 16 years Good 
Walsoorden, Holland 10-21 years Slight attack 
Walsoorden, Holland 29 years Good 
Portree, England 25 years Failed 
Salem, England 4 years Attacked 
Blackmill Bay, England 11 years Damaged 
Liverpool, England 38 years Good 
Liverpool, England 61 years Good 
Holyhead, England 20 years Damaged 
Yarmouth, England 25 years Damaged 
Zeebrugge, Belgium 6 years Slight attack 
Ostend, Belgium 16 years Slight attack 
Dunkerque, France 24 years Slight attack 
Havre, France 13 years Good 

Wich, Scotland 2-4, years Attacked 
Bell Rock, Scotland 19 years Slight attack 
Methil, Scotland 24 years Failed 
Methil, Scotland 14 years Attacked 
Methil, Scotland 11 years Failed 
Sunderland, England 35 years Failed 
Southampton, England 10 years Attacked 
Plymouth, England 30 years Failed 

Port Elizabeth, Australia 8 years Damaged 
Port Elizabeth, Australia 12 years Failed 
Bombay, India 15-20 years Failed 
Calcutta, India 10 years Failed 

Java 5-10 years Failed 
*Ganges River 10 years Failed 


In tropical waters Greenheart does not have an especially good record, but 
in waters of lower temperatures its record is better, although failures in 
15 to 20 years are reported. It is supposed that the protective principle in 
this timber is an alkaloid known as “beberine.”’ 


Angelique and Manbarklak—The protective element in all the above- 
mentioned timbers is supposed to be chemical, except in the case of the 
palms where it is probably due to the fibrous structure of the wood. Two 
timbers from Dutch Guiana are now being exploited which depend on their 
mechanical qualities for their resistance. Manbarklak, Lecythis ollaria, and 
Angelique, Dicorynia paraensis contain minute particles of silica which are 
said to prevent the operation of borers. 

Only two test records of Manbarklak, and one of Angelique, are available. 
At Vlessingen, Holland, Manbarklak is reported to be in good condition after 
18 years’ service, and in the Saramacea Canal, Dutch Guiana, after 17 years’ 
service. A test piece of Angelique submerged at Buklinsen City, Dutch 


*This structure was in fresh water, but was destroyed by a species of fresh water teredo. 


86 TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED 


Guiana, with a similar piece of Greenheart was in good condition after 7 
years, while the Greenheart was totally destroyed. 

On account of the failure of the Greenheart used in the locks of the 
Panama Canal, the authorities of the Canal Zone are investigating a num- 
ber of woods and have tested the above-mentioned woods to determine the 
amount of silica as compared to the common timbers with the following 
results: 


Buckie cae 2. eet ee ee eee 1.10% Ash 0.02% Silica 
Birch: 2%. Gewew bas cbs bee ee eee 0.26% Ash 0.01% Silica . 
OF: eapreks ee 1t Rr ee sere eo eae oe ce 0.51% Ash 0.01% Silica 
Angeliqueacyes ois see. ot ae ete ee 2.05% Ash 0.93% Silica 
Manbarklaki oye) 2) sais cc eee eee 1.40% Ash 0.52% Silica 
Greenhearti ws, ol asec exes e eee 0.08% Ash 0.04% Silica 


A microscopic examination shows that the particles of silica are evenly 
disseminated through the timber. This timber is also said to offer consider- 
able resistance to decay. 


Conclusions 

Cottonwood is available on the Pacific and Gulf Coasts and, subject to its 
structural limitations, has enough promise to justify thorough test of its 
ability to resist borers, but it should not be depended on until such tests are 
made and the limitation for its use established. 

Unless Turpentine wood, Angelique or Manbarklak supply the necessary 
qualities, it does not seem that there is any foreign timber which has a 
service record showing immunity from attack under all conditions. 

From recent reports it appears that there is a variation in the silica con- 
tent of these timbers, and tests are required to determine the necessary 
silica content so that it can be specified. 

Several timbers which have a fairly good record in cool water do not give 
as good service in the tropics. Some of these timbers are either expensive 
to produce, available only in limited quantities, or subject to quick destruc- 
tion by decay above the water level. 

It appears improbable that until native timbers which require protection 
are higher in price it will be economically desirable to use tropical timber 
for harbor works in northern harbors of the United States. 

In Pacific Island, Gulf and Caribbean harbors, where only eight or ten 
years’ average life is obtained from creosoted timber, further study may 
show that some of these timbers are economical. 


CHAPTER VI 


PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


The protection of timber in salt water against the attack of marine 
borers has been attempted by many methods since the earliest historic times. 
The earliest attempts were probably those of the Phoenicians and Trojans 
who sheathed their galleys with lead. Most methods used have been un- 
successful from the standpoint of permanence, though several of them have 
resulted in materially increasing the life of timber in borer-infested waters. 

Many times structures are built for which it is not necessary or desirable 
to secure the longest possible life, and frequently financial limitations are 
such that some less expensive protective method than the one most desirable 
must be adopted. These conditions make a knowledge of the less expensive 
“and generally less efficient methods just as important as that of the best 
methods. 

Service records and records of tests have been assembled and selected 
from a very exhaustive report prepared by Mr. A. K. Armstrong at the 
Forest Products laboratory, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, in 1913; from 
the reports on “Deterioration of Structures in Sea Water,” 1920, 1921 and 
1922, published by the Institution of Civil Engineers of London; from a 
report “Paeleorms og Paelekrebs Angreb ved Skandinaviens Kyster’” 1918-19 
by the Scanadinavian Engineering Societies; from the reports of the San 
Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, 1920, 1921, 1922 and 1923, and 
from special reports by various government agencies, railroads and others. 
In a number of cases it has been possible by correspondence to bring the 
records found in the earlier reports down to 1922 or 1923. The section deal- 
ing with creosote impregnation was prepared in collaboration with Dr. H. 
von Schrenk. 

For convenience the various methods of protection are divided into several 
classes: 


I. BARKS 


Barks ordinarily contain certain oils and acids, not present at least in as 
large quantity in the wood itself, and which are thought to act as repellants 
to the borers. The fibrous structure of the bark undoubtedly also makes 
attack by borers more difficult. 

To be of value as a protective agent bark must be unbroken and no access 
to the timber itself must be offered. This makes necessary extreme care in 
handling and frequently banding before the pile is handled or driven. It is 
often desirable to cover knots and other breaks in the bark with a sheet 
metal which will last as long as the bark itself. (Fig. 20). 

From about 20 reports the following are selected as typical: 

1. Portsmouth, N. H. Piscataqua River Bridge, Boston & Maine Railroad. 
In water infested with Limnoria, bark was an effective protection “except 
at knots and other places where bark was stripped before driving.” The 
attack at this point is not very heavy. 

R7 


88 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


2. Norfolk Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. Oak piles cut in January “resisted 
four or five years or until bark rubbed or chafed off.” 

3. Wilson Line Pier, Hoboken, N. J. Oak piles driven in 1912 had bark 
still tight in 1922. Attacked by Teredo navalis in knots and blazes only. 
The borer attack is light in this location. 

4, White Pass & Yukon Ry. Pier, Skaguay, Alaska. Hemlock piles winter 
cut with tight bark last about seven years, two to three times as long as un- 
protected piles. Both Limnoria lignorum and Bankia setacea are present in 
considerable numbers. | 


II. BUILT UP PILES 


Square cores sheathed with one or more layers of boards with or without 
intervening layers of tar paper, hair, etc., have been thought to be resistant. 
This is not correct, since the boards can be readily destroyed a layer at a ~ 
time, and in case of the molluscan borers there is no protection at all unless 
the different layers are separated by some impenetrable material. Martesia, 
at Pearl Harbor, H. I., bored through board sheathing and a layer of tar 
paper. 

The most that can be said for this method is that if tar paper, felt, or 
similar material is used between the layers, the life of the pile will be 
slightly extended. If creosoted boards are used for sheathing an otherwise 
unprotected core, they will undoubtedly materially lengthen the life of the 
pile, to an extent dependent on the rapidity with which the creosote leaches 
cut of the thin timber. The Charleston (S. C.) Dry Dock and Machine Com- 
pany sheathed the pontoons of their floating wooden dry dock with a layer 
of felt and one-inch boards impregnated with 12 pounds of creosote per 
cubic foot. This dock was built in 1919, and the pontoons were found in 
1923 not to have been attacked, although both Limnoria and shipworms are 
very destructive at this point. 


III. CHARRING AND TARRING 


Charring has been used as a means of protecting timber from the attacks 
of marine borers since the earliest historic times, but used alone there is 
nothing in the service records to indicate that this method has appreciable 
value as a protection against borers. When timber is charred and some 
additional protective method is used, the quality of protection seems to 
depend largely on the efficiency of this second element. From service rec- 
ords covering about 20 structures the following are typical: 

1. Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. Piles with thoroughly charred surfaces 
lasted nine years with some shipworm attack. 

2. Charleston, S. C. Pine piles charred and impregnated with wood creo- 
sote lasted from 1883 to 1890, seven years. 

3. Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. The New Orleans & Mobile Rail- 
road treated between 400 and 500 piles by charring with coal tar burnt on 
them, brush coated with creosote and covered with coal tar varnish. They 
lasted about eight years. 

4. Thana District, India. Khair piles well charred lasted 40 years as 
against a usual life of 25 years for unprotected timber. This is a location 
where shipworm attack is light. 

5. Hobart, Tasmania. Blue gum piles coated with tar, charred and while © 
hot covered with thick coal tar gave service of from 25 to 35 years as 


P26 ‘8G AUVONVE GHAOWAY GNV ezéEl ‘17 UdaWaLaTg 
‘HILLVaS “AY OMIOVG NUAHLYON ‘T YAIq LV GHSUAWW] SHOMIG ISH], GOOMNOLLOD GHMUVENQ GNV GauNUVA AO SNOILOAS—oOzZ ‘dIYT 


89 


BARKS 


90 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


against about 12 years for unprotected timber. Here again the shipworm 
attack is not heavy. 


IV. PILE COATINGS 


In the unpublished report of the Forest Products Laboratory a pile coat- 
ing is defined as “Protection that is an integral part of the wood’s surface, 
becoming so by a slight penetration, which through its content of a sub- 
stance chemically harmful or disagreeable to the marine wood borers pre- 
vents them from entering the timber.” Generally this method of protection 
is inefficient except for temporary structures, because the protective element 
is leached out of the thin coating by the sea water or the coating itself de- 
stroyed by abrasion within a very short time. 

Pile coatings are usually inexpensive and need be applied only to those 
portions of the piles exposed to attack; some of them are useful for struc- 
tures requiring temporary protection or for structures for which funds are 
not available in a sufficient amount to permit the use of a more durable 
method. 

The following reports are recorded for the positive or negative informa- 
tion which they contain: 


Ei tar 


Eight reports of the use of tar in foreign harbors are available. None of 
them show an increase in the length of life of timber for more than a few 
months, and this result might readily be accounted fer by the time of year at 
which the structures were built. 


2. Carbolineum Avenarius 


Carbolineum was supposed to be a high boiling creosote oil containing 
chlorine, and was manufactured by a secret process. 

The Forest Products Laboratory received a supply of this material for 
test from the Carbolineum Wood Preserving Company of San Francisco. 
This material did not conform to the analysis furnished by the American 
agent of the company but was used for the preparation of Douglas Fir test 
pieces twelve inches diameter and eight feet long. Three coats were applied 
at intervals of four and twenty-three days respectively, and placed in harbor 
waters as indicated below. The cost of material at this time (1910) was 
about seven cents per linear foot of pile treated. 


LOCATION KIND OF BORERS PRESENT LENGTH OF CONDITION OF 


TEST TEST PIECE 
San Francisco, Cal. Limnoria 2 1/12 years Attacked 
San Francisco, Cal. Limnoria and Bankia 21/6 years Severe attack 
San Diego, Cal. Limnoria 4 years Destroyed 
San Diego, Cal. Limnoria and shipworms 4 1/12 years Destroyed 


A test using 12-inch by 12-inch yellow pine sticks treated with two or 
three coats was started at Savannah, Ga., in 1908, the pieces being placed so 
that they were uncovered at each low tide. These test pieces showed no 
attack at the end of four years, but were destroyed at the end of 14 years. 

A report from Tampico, Mexico, shows that timber painted with Carbo- 
lineum was unattacked after six months, and another from Manzanillo, 
Mexico, states that timber similarly protected was destroyed in six months. 

A report from British Columbia states that the material is “useless.” 


PILE COATINGS 91 


An opinion from Genoa, Italy, is to the effect that Carbolineum increases 
the life of timber about 10 per cent, and the Chief Engineer, State Harbor 
Administration, Andenaes Westermalem, states that Carbolineum and Sotor 
protect only until the material is leached out or worn off. 


3. Sotor 


Sotor is a paint manufactured by a secret process by the same company 
that manufactures Carbolineum Avenarius, ‘and is sold as a pile protection. 
The cost is about the same as that of Carbolineum. 

In 1910 the Carbolineum Wood Preserving Company treated twelve test 
pieces 14 inches diameter by 8 feet long with Sotor, six of which were 
placed at San Diego and six at San Francisco by the Forest Service. The 
reports of inspection at San Francisco show that all pieces were destroyed 
by Teredo and Bankia before 1920, and those at San Diego show the aver- 
age life to have been 3.6 years. All of the sticks showed some attack within 
two years and eight months. 

The City and Harbor Engineer of Svendborg, Denmark, states that he 
has found Sotor to be “protective to some extent,” while the District En- 
gineer at Vardo, Finmark, states that it does not give lasting protection. 


4. Copper Paints 


Copper paints have had a wide use for the protection of the bottoms of 
wooden vessels where frequent docking and renewal is possible, but they 
have been used very little for the protection of structures. Records of the 
result of the use of these paints on vessels and on the wooden buoys of the 
Lighthouse Service indicate that they can be expected to give efficient ser- 
vice for from four to six months in badly infested water, and a similar 
service could probably be expected on piles. 


5. Kennons Teredo Proof Paint 


This material is said to be composed of creosote, coal tar and iron oxide 
combined with various substances which tend to prevent the germicidal 
properties of the creosote being leached out by salt water. It was placed 
on the market about 1896. 

A Forest Products Laboratory analysis showed 40 per cent tar, 50 per 
cent oil similar to Mond Producer Oil, and 10 per cent ferric oxide. 

Record of five observations by the War Department, and six by the Forest 
Service, show no case in which the timber protected by this paint success- 
fully withstood attack. One report of satisfactory service for a period of 
two years is made by the Craig Shipbuilding Company of Los Angeles. 


6. Miscellaneous Coatings 


Reports on service and tests of the following materials are available from 
38 locations in the United States, Holland, Russia and South Africa: 


Fish oil and tallow mixed 

Red lead 

Resin and tallow mixed 
Verdigris 

White zinc 

Childerson’s Teredo Proof Paint 
Mott Fireproof Paint 

Gimle Teredo Proof Paint 


92 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


Asphalt 

Marine Cement 

Portland cement and unknown ingredients 
Gilberts’ Paint 

Composition of Brinkerink 
Composition of Classen 

Composition of Ryhuyk 

Chrome green 

Metallic paint of Classen 

Paraffine varnish 

Mixture of coal tar, oil of vitriol, etc. 
Tar mixed with powdered glass 
Solignum 

Solignum and pitch varnish 
Teredocide 


None of the reports show appreciable protective value except the following: 
(a) Test pieces treated with Childerson’s Teredo Proof Paint immersed 
at the Pensacola Navy Yard, Fla., in March, 1896, were unattacked at the 
end of six months, while unprotected pieces were completely riddled. 
(b) One out of three pieces of pine treated with Solignum and immersed 
at Taube Bay, South Africa, was unattacked, while the other two were 
attacked. 


(c) One test piece of teak and one of jarrah treated with Teredocide at 
East London, South Africa, in 1910, were unattacked after two years, where 
unprotected pieces of pine and yellow wood were penetrated two inches by 
shipworms. 


V. PILE ARMORS 


Under this heading are classified those methods of protecting wooden 
piles from borer attack which depend wholly or principally on some mechani- 
cal method of preventing the borers from coming in contact with the timber. 
This result is generally obtained by sheathing the pile in sheet metal or 
fabric which has been specially treated, or by casing it in metal, or other 
pipe or concrete. Any such protection must cover the pile from a point be- 
low the possibility of scour to a point above extreme high water. 


1. Steel or Iron Sheathing 


Sheet steel or iron sheathing is seldom used because of its rapid corro- 
sion. Timber is immune from attack as long as the sheathing is sound, but 
this is seldom the case for more than from three to six years, even when 
the metal used has considerable thickness. 


2. Zinc Sheathing 


About 12 structures are recorded where sheet zinc (Nos. 9 to 14) has 
been used in the United States and Europe. The material was not reported 
to be a success as a permanent protection in any of the European structures. 
The Louisville & Nashville Railroad reports that piles driven in a bridge over 
Bay Biloxi, Miss., were protected by zinc, some as heavy as No. 9; felt was 
placed between the metal and the piles, but in spite of this double protection 
the piles were heavily attacked in eight years. Zinc sheathing undoubtedly 
prolongs the life of piles on which it is used, but the records do not indicate 
that it is an economical material for sheathing. 


PILE ARMORS 93 


3. Muntz Metal 


Muntz or “yellow”? metal has been widely used for pile sheathing in har- 
bors in many parts of the world. It is an alloy generally 60 per cent copper 
and 40 per cent zinc, and it is stated that the alloy must be homogeneous, 
else electrolytic corrosion will remove the zinc. 

In 1871 the New Orleans & Mobile Railroad reports a typical installation 
at Bay St. Louis, Miss. Muntz metal sheathing was placed over a layer of 
felt. The first failures were caused by bottom scour which uncovered the 
unprotected pile, and later holes appeared in the metal. It is reported to 
have been “thinned by decomposition in one year” but not to have shown 
very many holes in six years. 

The cost of this method in South Atlantic and Gulf ports in 1906 was 
about $1.20 per foot of pile protected. 

Reports from foreign harbors are as follows: 


New South Wales Harbors Unsatisfactory in most cases. 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Piles destroyed in 10 years where 
unprotected piles lasted 2 years. 

Durban, South Africa Not a permanent success. 

Queensland Harbors Piles destroyed—10 to 15 years. 

Victoria, Australia Piles destroyed — average life 20 
years. 

Brisbane, Australia Sheathing destroyed—average life 
20 years. 

Wellington, New Zealand Jarrah piles good after 30 years. 


The discussions in the British reports show considerable difference in the 
opinions as to the durability of this alloy, which seem to have been caused 
by variations in the quality of the metal. 


4. Copper Sheathing 


The high initial cost of copper sheathing is a decided drawback to its use, 
both because of its first cost and because this metal has sufficient value to 
make it worth stealing by harbor thieves. Like all other sheathings, copper 
is subject to abrasion and is readily torn by drift. It does not, however, 
corrode as rapidly as most other metals, and in the reports listed below the 
cause of failure is generally stated to be theft or abrasion by drift. The 
following service records have been obtained: 


KIND OF 
LOCATION SHEATHING AGE REMARKS 
Admiralty Piers, Jamaica 16 gauge 35 years 
copper Good condition 
Port Antonio, Jamaica Copper 15 years Destroyed 
Southend, England Copper ll years Piles driven in 1833. In 
1844 copper very thin 
and brittle 
Rio de Janeiro; Brazil Copper 10 years Piles destroyed 
East London, South Africa Copper 20 years Good condition 
Durban, South Africa Copper Not a success 
St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 20 gauge 8years 3 out of 128 piles have 
copper sheathing damaged by 


boats, all others good 


94 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


The Bureau of Lighthouses report having used copper sheathing on many 
lights and beacons in the Gulf of Mexico, and state that this method of pro- 
tection was very successful until the sheathing was destroyed by a hurri- 
cane. 

A wharf with copper sheathed piles was built by the Southern Pacific 
Railway at Tacoma in 1877. This wharf was removed in 1898 and the cop- 
per found to be in good condition, although it showed some corrosion. The 
piles had not been damaged and were covered by a heavy incrustation which 
seemed to be a copper salt. Forty-four of these piles were redriven in a 
bridge on the Burnett Branch of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1900 and 
are still in service (October, 1922) without any sign of decay. 

Copper is undoubtedly a valuable sheathing material, but there is almost 
no data to show its rate of corrosion, since few of the reports give the thick- 
ness of the copper used. Further study should be given to the question of 
the rate of corrosion and to determine the nature of the deposit on the piles, 
as in the report of the Northern Pacific Railroad, and its value as a protec- 
tion against borers. 


5. Cast Iron Casings 


Cast iron deteriorates very slowly in salt water and therefore it is an 
efficient material for the protection of timber piles, although its first cost is 
high. Like other pile armors it is entirely valueless if the timber is not 
completely covered for the full depth of the zone of attack. 

The Louisville & Nashville Railroad has used, for the protection of exist- 
ing structures, a casing made in semi-circular sections which are bolted to- 
gether. Care is taken to get the casing below the possibility of scour. It is 
filled with sand and capped with cement mortar so that the loss of sand 
which would indicate breakage or undercutting can be readily determined 
by removing the cap. 

-The Bureau of Lighthouses has made a considerable use of cast iron 
water pipe as casings. They report seventy-eight structures in the Gulf of 
Mexico waters in which cast iron pipe casings were used. These structures 
were built between 1896 and 1921, more than fifteen of them before 1907. 
The casing was placed after the piles were driven and before the dock was 
constructed. After the casing was in place it was filled with 1 to 3 cement 
mortar. The last inspection by diver was in 1914, and all structures were 
found to be in excellent condition, and so far as general non-diver inspections 
in 1921-22 could show, no deterioration had taken place in the iron, except 
in one structure in which the iron had slightly deteriorated, although some 
of the piles had decayed above the top of the pipe. 

Cast iron pipe filled with sand or mortar is not easily broken, and since it 
is not likely to deteriorate seriously for many years, it gives a very efficient 
protection. If the timber piles are also creosoted or otherwise preserved 
from decay as was done by the Bureau of Lighthouses in its pier at 
Guantanamo, Cuba, and elsewhere, it would seem that a very long-lived 
structure would result. 


6. Vitrified Pipe Casings 

Vitrified pipe casings have been used to a large extent along the Gulf 
Coast and to some extent on the Pacific. They are placed and filled with 
sand in the same manner as cast iron pipe, and are just as efficient so long 
as they are unbroken, since good vitrified pipe does not appreciably deteri- 


PILE ARMORS 95 


vrate in salt water. This type of casing is very easily broken and should 
not be used where there is water movement such as waves or current, since 
under these conditions there is great chance of breakage by drift. Railroads 
on the Gulf Coast report structures in good condition after 20 years’ service 
in still water, while in San Francisco Bay such protection only lasted two 
years, and in Pensacola the casings, which cost $10,000, on the piles of a new 
wharf, were broken within 30 days. 


7. Perfection Piles 


The “Perfection” process of pile protection which was used to a very 
considerable extent in the Puget Sound district was an attempt to build up a 
pile armor which would be cheaper and more effective than metal sheathing. 


To form the coating the pile was wrapped in burlap in 8-inch wide strips 
which had been thoroughly soaked in a hot mixture containing: 


2 barrels crude asphalt 
1 barrel slaked lime 
50 pounds rock salt 
100 pounds sulphur 
25 pounds marble dust 
3 cubic feet fine, dry, clean sand. 


The pile was wrapped spirally in such a manner as to obtain two thick- 
nesses of burlap which would result in a total thickness of about one-half 
inch. There was placed over the burlap a spiral wrapping of 12 or 14 gauge 
galvanized wire fastened with staples, the wires being three inches to five 
inches apart. 

Perfection piles were used in the construction of the Eureka Dock at 
Tacoma, Wash., in 1895, and when this dock was removed in 1910 a consid- 
erable number of the piles were in good condition. This type of pile was 
used in five docks at Seattle, and the result of an inspection of the remain- 
ing Perfection piles made in December, 1922, and January, 1923, is shown 
below: 


NO. PERFECTION 
ORIGINAL NO. PILES IN SERVICE AND 


LOCATION DATE BUILT PERFECTION PILES GOOD CONDITION 
PAGE NOS Ly veins ss « 1900 1,300 75 
Ue ba oe 1902 1,690 30 
EE NGO fv hts oc « 1901 1,085 4 
PG NO. Ses tate oc 1902 1,358 36 
PEE ONG. 8 ase os +1901 1,379 49 
6,812 194 


The Coaling Pier and the Main Station Pier at the Puget Sound Navy 
Yard were built on Perfection piles between 1901 and 1904, and the two 
piers still contain 332 of these piles, a slightly larger percentage than in 
the Northern Pacific piers. This is accounted for by the better protected 
site at the Navy Yard and perhaps the fact that some of these piles were 
further protected by tarred or creosoted battens. It is, however, stated that 
the coating on most of these piles remaining is broken and that the piles 
have been attacked (Fig. 21). 

The Perfection pile process gave complete protection to the timber as long 
as the coating was unbroken, but the coating was too fragile to result in a 
high percentage of survivals after a period of years. 


96 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


8. Moran Process 


The Moran Process is said to be a combination of impregnation and 
sheathing. The piles are coated with a mixture of gilsonite reduced with 
creosote to which is added iodide of arsenic applied at a temperature of 375 
deg. Fahr. After 24 hours a second coating of heavy dense asphalt or 
gilsonite is added, and in it a wire mesh cloth of heavy wire is imbedded. 
It is claimed that a considerable penetration of the toxic ingredients is ob- 
tained in the wood. 

This process was developed in San Francisco, and the first use of piles so 
protected recorded by the San Francisco Committee was in 1913 when 50 
piles were driven by the San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Railways, but no 
service record is available. In 1921 the Southern Pacific Railway drove 102 
piles in the Georgia Street wharf at Vallejo and 18 in a dolphin at the same 
place, protected by this process. The cost of the treatment to the Southern 
Pacific was $1.215 per linear foot of pile treated, which is about double the 
cost claimed by the company. Twenty-six piles were also driven in the Vir- 
ginia Street wharf of the City of Vallejo in 1922. Service records of these 
structures will be awaited with interest. 


9. Paraffine Paint Process 


This process has had some use in San Francisco Bay since 1889, and 
while a considerable number of piles protected by this method have been 
used, there seem to be no service records available from the older structures. 

The process is described in the following specifications furnished the 
United States Forest Service in 1911: 


“The piles, having been delivered in some convenient place for coating, 
will first be barked the distance they are to be protected and all knots and 
projections on the above mentioned part of the pile removed. 

“The barked portion of the pile will then be given a heavy coat of P. & B. 
Pile Paint, care being taken to fill all checks and to cover all surfaces thor- 
oughly. P. & B. Pile Covering will then be closely fitted around the pile, 
and all laps well cemented with P. & B. Paint and nailed with 1%4-inch 
galvanized nails, not more than 1% inches between nail centers. Where 
necessary a double row of nails will be driven. This pile covering will then 
be given a heavy coat of P. & B. Asphalt, into which will be embedded a 
close fitting lagging of redwood battens, 2 inches by 7/16 inch, nailed on 
alternate edges with six penny galvanized wire nails, not more than 9 
inches between nail centers, ends of battens to be double nailed. This 
lagging is then to be given a heavy coat of P. & B. Asphalt, care being 
taken to fill all spaces between the battens and to give the finished surface 
as smooth an appearance as possible. 

‘“As above finished the pile will be ready for removal and driving.” 


Concerning the “Pile Covering” the following information was given: 


“The material used by us is a heavy jute burlap, weighing either 10 or 
15 oz. to the yard, 38 inches wide, according to the engineers’ specifica- 
tions—the heavier weight being that preferably used. This is saturated 
and coated with a specially prepared asphalt and backed with saturated 
felt. The heavy grade pile covering weighs about 60 pounds to the 100 
pier feet, while the lighter weighs about 45 pounds to the 100 square 
eet.” 


The exact nature and composition of the paint and the asphalt are, quite 
naturally, not given. The asphalt is understood to be applied to the burlap 
cold. 

It is reported that between the years 1906 and 1909, 3600 piles protected 
by this method were driven by the San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Rail- 


97 


PILE ARMORS 


(were 


‘duvA AAVN aNnog 


LA9Nd AHL LV FUVHM IVOD NI 


6061 NI 


NAAN SATIq NOWOGuagG—Tz 


e 


ra I 


98 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


way. The first 500 under the train shed were replaced in from two to three 
years, while the other 3100 lasted from five to seven years. 

Recent installations of piles protected by this method have been 89 piles 
in the Georgia Street Wharf at Vallejo; 18 in a dolphin by the Southern 
Pacific in 1921; 252 piles in a trestle across Petaluma Creek in 1920 by the 
Northwestern Pacific Railway and 2994 in the wharf at Eckley Station by 
the Grangers Business Association in 1920-21. The cost of protection of the 
piles used by the Northwestern Pacific is stated to have been 62 cents per 
linear foot of pile covered. 


10. Columbia Paint Process 


This process is similar to the Paraffine Paint Process, using paint manu- 
factured by the Columbia Paint Company. In 1913-14 the San Francisco- 
Oakland Terminal Railway drove 130 piles protected by this process, of 
which 30 were replaced in 7 years and the remainder are still in service. 
In 1918, the Union Construction Company drove 950 of these piles in 6 dif- 
ferent structures in their shipyard at Oakland, all of which are said to be 
still in service. 


11. Argentine Quebracho Process 


This process is similar to the two preceding, except that ““Argentine Que- 
bracho Commercial Paint” is used instead of Paraffine or Columbia paint. 
Three hundred and eighty piles protected by this compound were driven in 
various structures at the Mare Island Navy Yard in 1920-21. 

There are several other processes on the market similar to the above, all 
depending on the strength of some proprietary compound, the composition 
of which is usually unknown. The danger in the use of such compounds is 
evident. 

The processes described above have a distinct place in the general scheme 
of protection. They are generally less expensive than some other more 
efficient methods and under some conditions will give as long a life as is 
desired for a structure. Their relative economy increases with the decrease 
_in the proportion of the pile which must be protected, since a pile with deep 
penetration and a small length exposed to attack requires only a small 
amount of protection, while protection by impregnation requires treatment 
for the entire length of the pile. 


12. “Scupper Nailing” 


Attempts to protect galleys from borer attack by driving their hulls full 
of nails were made in ancient time, and this method of protection for struc- 
tures has been used intermittently in Europe since the eighteenth century. 
The protection given by the nails results not only from covering a large 
part of the surface of the timber by the heads of the nails, but also from 
the incrustation of rust formed by the corrosion of the iron. 

A variation of this method, used in Scandinavian harbors, is the applica- 
tion of strips of sheet iron which seem to have a similar effect. It does not 
appear probable that iron strips are as efficient as nails, because the rust 
does not penetrate the wood so deeply. 

The Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., used Dutch flat-headed nails in Douglas 
fir piles at San Francisco, but with only indifferent success. Details of the 
method are not available. 


PILE ARMORS 99 


The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway used 3d and 4d nails spaced 
about %-inch in Douglas fir piles at San Diego in several wharves and 
trestles built between 1881 and 1888. One of these piles, pulled in 1914, was 
found to be intact, and 65 out of 80 examined in 1917-1918 were found to be 
unattacked. 

The Spreckels Companies used 3d nails spaced 14 inch for the protection 
of the piles in the slip of the San Diego and Coronado Ferry Company built 
in 1898. These piles gave about 15 years’ service and failed on account of 
attack in checks and cracks. Considering the strains to which piles are 
exposed in a ferry slip this seems to be a good record. 

The Santa Fe reports the cost of driving the nails to have been 10 to 13 
cents per square foot of pile, and the Spreckels Company states that the 
school boys employed for the work protected about two linear feet of pile 
per day per boy. 

The Charleston Dry Dock and Machine Company at Charleston, S. C., 
drove 600 yellow pine piles protected by roofing nails in 1918 in one of their 
structures located where unprotected piles last less than one year. These 
nails are about 1 inch in length with heads %% inch to ‘% inch in diameter, 
spaced by using 14% inch wire mesh as a template. The labor used was negro 
boys and the cost per linear foot of pile protected for labor and materials 
was about 40 cents. The piles are not only covered by an incrustation of 
rust but this has penetrated the wood beyond the points of the nails (Fig. 
22). A number of samples were removed in 1922 which showed no attack 
by Limnoria, and while several specimens of Bankia gouldi were found, 
only one had attained any considerable size. 

It would appear that this method of protection has merit, and that its 
cost could be much reduced from that reported by the use of machinery for 
driving the nails where labor costs are high, and where labor is not expen- 
sive the cost with hand labor is not excessive. Only that portion of the 
pile exposed to attack needs protection. 

No records have been obtained of the use of hoop iron in the United 
States, but this method is indicated to have merit by reports received 
through Dr. Lorenz, Chief Engineer of the Harbor of Copenhagen, Den- 
mark. 

At Haftensund, Norway, an unprotected pile lasts from two to five years. 
This life is greatly increased by wrapping the piles with spirals of hoop 
iron spaced from 6 to 8 cm. nailed with galvanized nails spaced about 30 cm. 

At Fjallbacka similar results have been obtained from the use of spirals 
of iron 214 cm. wide and 3 mm. thick, spaced about four inches. 

The value of this type of protection is not so thoroughly demonstrated as 
that by the use of nails, but it offers the great advantage that it can be 
applied by divers to piles already in place. 

Experiments made under the direction of this Committee in tropical 
waters do not indicate that this method will be successful, at least where 
there is no period of inactivity. It does not seem probable that sheet iron 
strips will give as efficient protection as nails. 


13. Concrete Casings 

Concrete casings for timber piles may be divided into two classes, de- 
pending on the method of construction. One group would include pre-cast 
casings, the other casings cast in place. Casings in either group may be 


100 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


constructed and placed either before or after the pile is in place in the 
structure. 

Lock joint or other standard concrete pipe forms the earliest and cheapest 
form of the first group. These piles, if properly made, are stronger than 
vitrified clay pipe and will better resist shock from waves and drift. The 
space between the casing and the pile should be filled with sand or concrete. 
Except in still water this type of protection has not generally given satis- 
faction. 

Casings, generally more heavily reinforced, have been manufactured for 
the purpose of pile protection, and give better service in proportion to their 
strength. One of the most promising methods recorded is that by which 
the Shell Oil Company saved a portion of their pier at Martinez, Cal., after 
it was heavily attacked by Teredo. 

The casings, reinforced with heavy wire mesh, were built up in sections 
about 2 feet 6 inches in length on collapsible metal forms with a cement 
gun. The lowest section had a canvas gasket with steel fingers which fitted 
the pile sufficiently tight to retain the concrete poured into it after it was 
placed on the pile. The piles were cut off about 5 inches under the deck of 
the pier, the lower section of the casing put in place, filled with concrete, 
and other sections added and filled with concrete as the casing was lowered, 
until it rested on the mud. It was then jacked down until about 3 feet of 
penetration was obtained and the upper end built up under the cap by the 
addition of more sections filled with concrete (Fig. 23). The cost of this 
work is stated to have been about $2.50 per foot of pile. 

The Koetitz Pile, used for new structures, consists of a reinforced con- 
crete pre-cast casing placed over the wooden pile and driven into the bot- 
tom as soon as the pile is driven; the annular space is then filled with con- 
crete. Ten hundred and fifty of these cylinders 26 inches in diameter with 
walls 3 inches thick were used in Pier 17, San Francisco, in 1910, and few 
of them were reported in 1922 to have shown any considerable deterioration. 

There are a number of minor variations in the methods of constructing 
this type of protection, but the two described above may be considered 
typical. 

There are several methods of precasting casings on piles before driving, 
the most recently developed of which is by the use of the cement gun, as 
illustrated in Tacoma, Wash., on the Municipal Piers built in 1922. 


These piles were placed vertically in racks on shore; electrically welded 
mesh reinforcing with No. 12 wire, spaced 2 inches, was applied to the piles 
with chair spacers, and the gunite, in the proportion of 1 cement, 2 sand 
in place, was applied in two coats so as to obtain a total thickness of 2 
inches. The piles after the application of the gunite were very carefully 
handled with locomotive cranes so as to avoid bending the piles and thus 
cracking the concrete. These structures are in water in which Bankia 
setacea is very active and destructive, and not far from places where the 
rock boring pholads are active. Frequent reports on the condition of these 
piles will be of very general interest. 

Another type of precast casing is represented by the Ripley Pile, which 
has a molded casing with two layers of wire mesh reinforcing on the pile. 
The steamship wharf at Port au Prince, Haiti was built on these piles in 
1910; and:is reported to have been in good condition in 1922, although it 
would not appear that a detailed inspection by diver had been made. 


PILE ARMORS 101 


The approach wharf to the dry dock “Dewey” at Olongapo, Philippine 
{slands, was constructed in 1910 on timber piles encased in cement mortar. 
Twelve wood furring strips one-half inch high and equally spaced were 
nailed to the surface of the piles, and galvanized wire cloth with 14 inch 
mesh and No. 16 or No. 18 wire was fastened to the furring strips with 
galvanized iron staples. A cement mortar sheathing, made of 1-2 mortar, 
was troweled on this mesh to a minimum thickness of 1% inch over the mesh. 
The piles were very carefully handled and driven in a moderately firm 
sandy bottom. 


The following table shows the amount of sheathing on the various piles: 


Pene- Un- Un- 
Length | Length | Pene- | tration |sheathed|sheathed 
No. of of of tration of portion | portion Kinds of wood: 
Piles each _ |sheathed of sheathed at at Remarks 
portion | points | portion | butts | points 
4 42’ 22) 2’ 18’ Apitong, tanguile 
4 37’ Wig 19 2 2 18’ and other second 
4 33’ 13’ to to 2’ 18’ group timber; none 
4 30’ 10’ 20 3 Ze 18’ of which is Teredo 
4 27' c Feet Feet 2 18’ resisting. 


It is stated that unprotected piles at this location have a useful life of 
from three to five years. 

A report under date of April 9, 1923, gives the following information re- 
garding the present condition of these piles: 


1, In accordance with above reference, the Bureau is advised that the 
outboard rows of piles in the approach pier to the Dry Dock “Dewey,” are 
in good condition, while the inside row is in fair condition, considering the 
13 years that these piles have been in these waters. 


“2. The cement plaster in most cases is in very good condition, except 
for very fine vertical cracks about three feet long and about 4 inches apart 
which start at the top of the concrete above the water line within a couple of 
feet of the top of the timber cores. These cracks are more noticeable in the 
center row than in the outboard rows of piles, due to the fact that when 
the timber cores are wet, they have little chance to be dried out by the sun, 
thus becoming water logged, expanding, contracting and causing the cement 
plaster to crack. 

“3. Above the cement plaster line, the timber cores are sound, but along 
the cement line, the piles are rotted. By breaking the cement plaster along 
its bevelled edge, the timber cores show that they are rotted as deep as 3 
inches all around the pile butts in the center row of piles and the rot con- 
tinues down into the timber cores within the cement plaster. The same 
condition exists in the outboard rows of piles, except that the timber cores 
are rotted only in the inboard side of the piles where not accessible to the 
sun’s rays for quick drying and that the rot in these places is only about 
1% inches deep. 

“4. With one exception the piles do not show any damage due to shock or 
impact, the piles having evidently been well prepared and carefully driven. 
Only row boats and small launches come alongside this pier and they do 
not damage these piles. One pile with broken cement plaster for a distance 
of about 2 feet from the top of the cement line has become very badly 
rotted where the cement has broken off from time to time, allowing water 
to settle under the broken cement plaster and causing rot to take place 
more quickly than in the better piles.” 


PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


Fic. 22—SECTIONS OF PILE FROM WHARF OF THE CHARLESTON DRY Dock 
AND MACHINE Co., CHARLESTON, S. C., WITH 4 YEARS’ SERVICE 


103 


PILE ARMORS 


"IVD 


‘ZUNLLUVIN ‘AUVHM S,/0D TIO TIGHS 


NO SDNISVD GLINNS—§Z ‘SIA 


104 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


Many methods of construction have been used for casings of this type, 
and the results have been quite variable, but it must be recognized that to 
be successful such a casing must have considerable strength to resist abra- 
sion. This means comparatively heavy reinforcing closer to the surface than 
experience indicates to be wise. The concrete itself is open to the chemical 
attack of the sea water, and the casings are expensive, so that unless gunite 
is demonstrated by time to be effective it does not seem that this method of 
protection is one to be recommended for general use—though in special 
cases its use may be justified. If it is used the timber piles should be pro- 
tected from decay above high water. 

Concrete casings cast in place have an extremely variable record, espe- 
cially in deep water; in some cases where a heavy metal form was used and 
left in place, fairly long life has been obtained. Casings of this type have 
often been employed to protect wooden piles which have been attacked by 
marine borers, by the use of collapsible forms which are removed after the 
concrete is poured. Such casings are subject to the difficulties encoumere3 
in pouring sound concrete in sea water. 

The Bunker Wharf of the Spreckels Company at San Diego was built on 
creosoted piles in 1887, and these piles surrounded by casings poured in 
place. These casings have been repaired as frequently as they became 
broken, and the structure is still in service. This method of protection has 
been in quite general use in San Diego and Los Angeles. 

Several piers were built in San Pedro (Los Angeles) about 1908, in which 
the piles were protected by casings in wooden forms left in place. When 
these piles were removed on account of dredging in the harbor in 1922 it 
was found that the forms had been attacked by borers and partially de- 
stroyed. Where the forms were gone, rock borers had attacked the con- 
crete and thoroughly shattered it. In this destruction they were apparently 
aided by the disintegration of the cement by sea water. There is no infor- 
mation available as to the materials or methods of constructing this con- 
crete, but the strongest piece tested after the removal of the piles showed 
only about 1700 pounds per square inch in compression. Some pieces in- 
spected showed the pink color characteristic of Portland cement disintegrated 
in sea water. This concrete contained few coarse aggregates. 

Piles wholly exposed at low tide have been protected by plastering, but 
with generally unsatisfactory results. An example may be found in the 
trestle of the Pacific Northwest Traction Company near Bellingham, Wash., 
where the piles were attacked by borers and were covered with a mortar 
coating applied in 1916. This coating was so badly broken by 1918 that it 
was removed and a coating applied with a cement gun, which is reported to 
be in good condition at present. 

Several different methods of casting casings around piles and clusters of 
piles in place have been used in San Francisco, with the result that because 
of the difficulty of securing sound concrete and the cost of the ee 
they are not now looked upon with favor. 

A typical installation of the type of protection where the forms were left 
in place is the repair work at the Naval Training Station at Yerba Buena 
Island. The piles, which were about 16 inches diameter, had been attacked 
by Limnoria. Sixteen gauge galvanized iron forms were placed around the 
piles and filled with concrete which was reinforced with ten gauge 4 inch 
wire mesh set 2 inches from the pile. This work was done in 1920 and 
cost about $2.00 per foot of pile protected. 


PILE ARMORS 105 


The Camp Process (patented) is typical of the construction of concrete 
jackets with removable forms (Fig. 24). Circular wooden forms are pro- 
vided with sections 3 feet in length and about 20% inches inside diameter, 
made of tongued and grooved wooden pipe staves strengthened with bands 
of angle iron. They are made in halves and each half is hinged in the 
center. When placed around the pile the halves are fastened together with 
tapered pins. The lower section is provided with sheet iron fingers over 
which canvas is fastened, and which touch the pile when the form is in 
place. 


Fic. 24—-ForMs IN PLACE FoR CONCRETE CASINGS CAST IN PLACE. ‘CAMP SYSTEM.” 


106 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


The process is carried out by placing the lower section around the pile, 
suspended by a cable on each side. This section is then filled nearly full 
with rather fine gravel which is held in place by the fingers and canvas. 
The second section is then placed and bolted to the lower one with six bolts 
and then filled with concrete mixed 1:2:3 soft. This process of adding sec- 
tions is continued and the form lowered until it reaches the bottom. The 
forms are set into the mud by use of a jet or otherwise to a depth of. about 
3 feet. The form is left in place for about 2 days and then removed by 
pulling the taper pins holding the halves of the various sections together 
and raising them with the cables fastened to the lower section. 


Even with the exercise of the greatest care it is difficult to get good con- 
crete, especially in deep water, but the process has value in protecting piles 
damaged by borers without disturbing the deck of the structure. This type 
of protection cost in 1920 at San Francisco about $1.50 per linear foot of 
pile protected. 

The method covered by the Holmes patent consists of driving a form 2 
feet in diameter for single piles, or 31% feet to 4 feet for clusters of 3 piles, 
into the bottom, sealing it, pumping out the mud and water, placing the 
reinforcing and filling with concrete to the bottom of the cap. The forms 
were made either of staves held together by round bands, or of steel plate 
in case of the clusters of three piles. 

The service record of this type of protection for single piles is not good 
but is somewhat better for the larger cylinders. This method is of course 
for use on new structures. 

One of the frequent causes of failure of concrete cased piles, or piles with 
other types of mechanical protection, is the erosion of the bottom and the 
consequent exposure of the unprotected wood to attack. Fig. 25 shows a 
typical example taken from the report of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 
1920, where the casing was too short on both ends. If casings are used, it 
is absolutely necessary that the bottom of the casing be not only below the 
mudline but far enough below so that there is no chance that scour will 
uncover unprotected timber, and the top should be above high water. 


VI. INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 
1. Soluble Salts 
Soluble salts, while they may be very poisonous to animal life, will give 
protection to a pile only so long as the dissolving and chemical effect of sea 
water does not reduce their concentration below the lethal toxicity required. 
The following materials and methods have been tried in the United States 
or abroad with generally unsatisfactory results: 


Copper sulphate Thilmany process 

Paynizing Sulphate of iron 

Gerlaches solution Soluble glass and chloride of cal- 
Acetate of lead cium 
Kyanizing 


Two sets of test blocks, one injected with arsenious iodide and another 
with copper iodide, each using paraffine as a carrier, are under test by 
Forest Products Laboratory at Pensacola, Fla. Specimens were in- 
stalled January, 1923, together with untreated specimens and specimens 
treated with paraffine alone. When inspected one year later, in January, 


| 


DRAWING N22. 


DRAWING NOL. 


Illustrating condition of pile 


Ilustrating the manner tn which the pile was 


when taken out of the water. 


concreted and prepared before being driven, 


LAGOS. 
Pile of Ekki Wood with 


PILE ARMORS 


as 
c=) 
Bizzy 
vu 
Dc 
Cc 
eS en 
os) > es 
e 9 Bette 
> Sy Mine Sak 
° on eo) a 
“a 2) ut © we 
‘ vu 
°o ( pel rv) t 
ma) ce a! we fd t 
~ = f uy, { 
[S) ~ 4 wd 
wo ( { Qos i 
¢: Ss \ ' | =~ t 
Cc i t 
@ — { 
(io) TENG. Ae We ws ’ t 
Se Gi Mit ou a wien ea a" %, Wop tues 3 t 
. © Jah ig atl, its gern A a Whe Pin ts AG ; aie ea " 
“F u wt eo ont Mila FEST AL SR AID Ls Netgear ce we tae 2 4 


etiam * 


AOU Ie RUN ad eae “a Za wat ies aN ks \ 
NE Le tre tein dine testa WG A Bk 
ee NI 
o 1 =e, F 
= ! 
{ 
Ss { --~-39yiWwoy 0} WuUas vonsod Lridwes - -4 
' if 
z= 1 ~) 


| ' 
| 


Concrete protection, 


y 
is 
w 
bs! 
[oo] 
» 
c 
ov 
E 
cr) 
1S] 


: = y yin 

= bay AON a 4 mM A mm 3/4 Nt lt We oe 
pain ee aN iy Pe ‘2 ry Mt Ut oe 1s) yal! "2 em Me i FF yt 
an 2 Ow mae ON aN iy)” mt fea es f Wa my nie 
we eee > a uth eae ey yrs ma IMS Bt 4g 


t 


ae ee oe 
31 


I MI iy HU, 

wht My i ‘ut- ha v5 » a yu 4 

Nip Yt 
op iy 


We AS gh Ey We 

ye ay, on wo 

4, ON ry 72 We 
Ss 


ww i/! Won \ enka We 
a HE v] rR wee \ wu? \\ , 


lo Ww . ws 
o Cl 


Pare Ct De aa ae sea ee + 


Phe se 


---Perfectly sound 
SAND 


lad! Ike 


’ 


[eo 


SKETCH SHOWING RESULT OF BUILDING CASINGS TOO SHORT. 


(REPRODUCED FROM 1ST REPORT, INST. OF CIVIL ENGINEERS) 


25— 


Fic. 


107 


108 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


1924, the untreated specimens were found to be completely destroyed, and 
the treated specimens were all attacked by shipworms. It is probable that 
in another year the treated specimens will be destroyed. Specimens treated 
with paraffine alone appeared to resist attack to about the same degree as 
those treated with paraffine and the copper and arsenious salts. Tests of 
similar specimens by the San Francisco Committee gave similar results, 
except that the arsenious salts seemed to resist better than the others. 

The process of double injection, that is, locking the soluble compound in 
the timber with one that is insoluble, by precipitation or otherwise, is a 
promising field for experiment. One of the dangers is that this method will 
be so expensive as to be uneconomical. Several of these processes are: 


FIRST INJECTION—SOLU- SECOND INJECTION— 

PROCESS TION OF: SOLUTION OF: 
Jacques Soap Tar acids 
Richards Common salt Alum 
Muller Phosphate of soda Chloride of barium 
Hattzfeld Tannin Acetate of iron 
Krug Soda Creosote 
Wellhouse Chloride of zine and glue Tannin 


2. Wood Products 
Various wood products have been tried and generally found wanting. 
Records of 24 tests, none of which were successful, are available, cover- 
ing the following substances said to be wood products: 


Wood creosote Spiritine 
Ferneline Pinoline 
Wood distillate Resin oil 
Resin 


3. Creo-Resinate Process 

Two tests of wood preserved by this process were reported by the Forest 
Products Laboratory; one in Virginia showed “badly attacked by shipworm 
in 7 years,” and the other in Texas ‘“‘riddled in less than 2 years.” 


4. Powellizing 


The Powellizing process, which is patented, consists of first immersing the 
timber in a thin syrup of raw sugar or other saccharine matter, which is 
heated to the boiling point and maintained at that temperature for several 
hours. Other ingredients, some of them toxic, are sometimes added to the 
syrup. After the boiling process has been completed, the liquor is allowed 
to cool to 100° Fahr. or less, and then drawn off. The timber is then sub- 
jected to a process of artificial drying, which is effected by gradually raising 
the temperature in the drying chamber to about 170° Fahr., the humidity 
being reduced from 85 per cent or 90 per cent to 35 per cent. 

The report of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1920, indicated that while 
this process extended the life of the timber in borer infested waters, it did 
not give immunity from attack. 


5. Creosote Impregnation 


Impregnation of timber with creosote is one of the best methods in general 
use for the protection of timber against decay, and it has been also recog- 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 109 


nized as a generally efficient protection against marine borers for a number 


of years. The value of creosote seems to be less in warm waters than in 
colder ones, and some creosotes seem more efficient than others. It is not 
known whether the effectiveness of creosote depends on its toxicity, or 
whether it acts as an inhibitant preventing the larvae of the molluscan and 
the young of the crustacean borers from landing on the wood. 

The cause of the failure of some creosoted timber is undoubtedly the leach- 
ing of the creosote from the wood by sea water, or the absence of the neces- 
sary protective constituent. Much study has been given to these subjects, 
and many experiments have been made or are under way, in an endeavor to 
find the reasons for success or failure. 

Naturally the first investigations dealt with examinations of creosotes ex- 
tracted from old piles, both from such as were still perfectly sound, and from 
those partly or wholly destroyed by various marine borers. For the sake of 
ready reference a number of these older investigations follow herewith, to- 
gether with brief conclusions developed by the various investigations. 

When the Long Wharf of the Southern Pacific Railway at Oakland, Cal., 
was removed in 1918-1919, after the piles had been in service from 18 to 29 
years, several pile sections were analyzed with the following results, which 
are taken from the proceedings of the American Wood Preservers Associa- 
tion, 1920, pages 157-158. Sections cut from that portion of each pile in air, 


in water, and in mud, were analyzed by Mr. Mattos of the Southern Pacific 
Company. 


ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 27 REMOVED FROM Dock A 
AFTER 29 YEARS OF SERVICE 


AIR WATER MUD 
eM OM CCTION ee ok eae ae cles cates TBP in. 7.25 in. 6.5 in. 
Radius of untreated portion of section.... 6.5. in. 6.25 in. DL Oeil 
Percentage of oil in treated ring.......... 40.68 54.75 47.49 


Pounds of oil per cubic foot of treated wood 13.02> lbs. 17.52 lbs. 15.19 lbs. 
Pounds of oil per cubic foot based on the 


area of the entire cross section......... 2.24 ibs. 4.45 lbs. 4.31 lbs. 
Specific gravity of extracted oil at 38° C... 1.059 1.044 1.0486 
Specific gravity of fraction 235° C. to 315° 
ON a er 1.0365 1.0488 1.0422 
Specific gravity of fraction 315° C. to 355° 
SSO 1.0934 1.0920 1.0798 
rc 0.6% 0.2% 0.7% 
FRACTIONS 
RANGE AIR WATER MUD 
Ne fg k a cx seis ssa veces 0.16% 0.68% 0.15% 
Ee es ie KPA ae eh ewes 0.53% 1.84% 1.25% 
I NE cs ols ce elsic ess ceeees 2.57% 2.48% 1.95% 
eT ew nc es co hele go os wel 30.06 % 49.00% 37.60% 
Tee Gs ca se ce cea 25.70% 19.40% 23.25% 
ee 9.60% 7.75% 7.05 % 
ry ne San as encom case races 13.49% 10.75% 12.70% 
ae lll Oo 17.98% 8.10% 16.05 % 
100.00 % 100.00 % 100.00% 


Notre—Residue soft in each case. 


110 PROTECTION 


AGAINST BORERS 


ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 3 REMOVED FROM Dock A 


AFTER 29 YEARS OF SERVICE 
AIR 
PRECWIS7OLSROCTION fc ccc re St hn lack ae Oe ee ee 6.25 in 
Radius of untreated portion of section.... 4.30 in 
Percentage of creosote in treated ring.... 48.59 
Pounds of creosote per cu. ft. of treated wood 15.55 lbs. 
Pounds of creosote per cubic foot based on 
area of entire cross-section ............ 8.19 
Specific gravity of extracted creosote at 
1: ta GORE RAM er ies te Aa he 8. NN 1.0898 
Specific gravity of fraction 235° C. to 
BERT CORSE 38° Oey Roe ea ee eee 1.0477 
Specific gravity of fraction 315° C. to 
obo te Grat-88° Orie. ace eee. 1.113 
PLAY SACIOS ~ «ai. aduelous ee BERR. ee 3.1% 
FRACTIONS 
RANGE AIR 
0% G..to<200° eG re ee ee ee oe 0.00% 
Z008).C..to. 210° <Cisss See epee ee ees 0.00% 
210°. Os toc2en, 0. .2% sage ae ee eee ree 5.25% 
Bo wAg eo bO 2108s ice sn. os ge eae ee ae 15.25% 
Bis; tO OLD AO @ ono tasks Obes Eaten eee nee 19.95% 
OG. CO OO | Aeris ove © ie siete eee 28.55 % 
Residue above 355°) Gi. 2a ee ee 31.00% 


Note—Residue soft in each case. 


WATER 


5.88 in. 
4.26. in. 


57.21 


18.31 Ibs. 


9:64 
1.07 
1.0414 


1.1248 
1.8% 


WATER 
0.00% 
1.00% 
3.10% 
17.40% 
26.50% 
27.60% 
24.40% 


MUD 
5.40 in. 
3.88 in. 

64.73 


20.71 lbs. 
10.04 


1.0796 
1.0550 


1.1270 
3.3% 


MUD 
0.00% 
1.45% 
6.10% 

24.45% 
20.45% 
26.25% 
21.30% 


ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PiLE REMOVED FROM Dock C AFTER 


22 YEARS OF SERVICE 


PLACIS SOL SECRION. cen. eater ae eee 
Radius of untreated portion of section .... 
Percentage of creosote in treated ring..... 
Pounds of creosote per cu. ft. of treated wood 
Pounds of creosote per cubic foot, based on 

area. of entire. cross -section.........0¢8% 


Speci sete of fraction 285° CG. to 315° 
Ceeat C 

Specific eae of fraction 315° C. to 355° 
Viet BBS Chip sew odie oom dean eee eee 

EL ETMGACIOS « .. mee ct we eae 


eoeeeee eee eee eee eee es eee eee es « 


RANGE 


O283GC.to:210?. Css 4 cee ee eee ee 
PiOs CG. to.235° Gli 2. cea pee ete ee 
PAH Gato 270 2NGiat vk. OR eee 
Bae. to 815°) Gee 4 aie eee 
Pl Dk lok FOFOO Sa ones c oe StL Re eee 
Hegique above ope. (i v.27 a cae 


MUD 
6.75 in. 
5.87 in. 

51.50 
16.48 


4.00 
1.0682 
1.0261 


1.0737 
6.00 % 


MUD 
0.00% 
6.86 % 

21.76% 
24.46% 
22.55% 
24.37% 


Notre—The residue above 355° C. in the case of the air section was hard and brittle, 
while in the water and mud sections the residue, although hard, was more elastic than 
the residue of creosote extracted from the air section. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 


111 


ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PILE REMOVED FROM DocK D AFTER 
20 YEARS OF SERVICE 


Radius of section 


Radius of untreated portion of section..... 
Percentage of creosote in treated ring..... 


Pounds of crecsote per cubic foot of treated 
See 


Pounds of creosote per cubic foot, based on 
area of entire cross section............. 


Specific gravity of fraction 235° C. to 315° 
ar SLOSS SS a 


Specific gravity of fraction 315° C. to 355° 
feat oo: | © 


Ee 
FRACTIONS 
RANGE 

OG os cope ce he ce ens 
i 9 SST hr 
OSes oa (he ol ae Se 
OS Sal Qk a a a rc rr 
ES 
2 en 
CIN ese cw tt es 
emoueenove oop Ole... kk ke we 


AIR 
fAtinny 


6.0 in. 
45.0 


12.4 


WATER 


6.50 in. 
5.62 in. 


47.06 

15.06 
3.78 
1.0613 
1.0212 


1.0756 
3.4% 


WATER 
0.00% 
0.00% 
0.95% 
3.10% 
24.70% 
24.45% 
22.15% 
24.05% 


MUD 
5.37 in. 


4.37 in. 
54.8 


17.53 
5.91 
1.0562 
1.0244 


1.0810 
6.3% 


MUD 
0.00% 
1.10% 
2.65 % 

12.30% 
22.40% 
21.25% 
21.95% 
18.35% 


Note.—The residue of creosote extracted from air section above 355° C. was hard, jbut 
not brittle upon cooling. In case of the water and mud sections, the residue above 355° C. 


was soft. 


18 YEARS OF SERVICE 


' ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PILE REMOVED FROM Dock E AFTER 


0 
Radius of untreated portion of section..... 
Percentage of creosote in treated ring..... 


Pounds of creosote per cubic foot of treated 
ho ia oars 0s: «sie. wie Wms oo epes 


Pounds of creosote per cubic foot, based on 
area of entire cross section............. 


Specific gravity of extracted creosote at 
oa C 


oerevree sees eee eee ee eee eee ee ee eee ew 
Bee O16 6 (8 “0! @ 16.6 ‘© © 6 6) 0 0 6 0 6 0, ©. 0 8 © € 


oereeeeveeeeee eee eee eee eee ee @ 


AIR 
7.0 in. 
6.0 in. 

39.67 


12.69 


3.96 


1.0562 


1.0210 


1.0836 
2.89 Yo 


WATER 


6.37 in. 
5.37 in. 


48.77 

15.60 
4.51 
1.0412 
1.0163 


1.0752 
3.5% 


MUD 
5.0 in. 
4.0 in. 

50.00 


16.00 


5.76 


1.0386 


1.0142 


1.0763 
3.5% 


112 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


FRACTIONS 

RANGE AIR WATER MUD 

0 Cte LO re et a ae eee 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 
LTO GH tes 200 ot Soca occas ere 1.45% 1.05% 2.25% 
AAO, CADE LO ond Uae cia ota etapa ete, ceed toes 1.80% 1.25% — 1.20% 
Bad eh COA ROO TANe sea con Lea ae 12.65% 12.85% 8.00% 
260° 45046 210. Cort, 2a eee eee 25.25% 30.95 % 30.10% 
MANGE Gey ofa wes 0 Am Oe eee oe Pa 19.70% 19.55 % 19.80% 
WETS a Org tear iis. Wariner were as acon Aah 22.10% 19.45% 20.25% 
Residue anove 855°. Gil 5 ieee eee 17.55% 14.90% 14.40% 


Notrre.—The residue above 355° C. in the case of creosote extracted from the air section 
upon cooling was hard and brittle, while in the case of the creosote extracted from the 
water and mud line sections the residue above 355° C. was soft. 


The piles in this structure driven in 1890 and 1892, about 7 per cent of the 
total, were treated with English creosote by the Bethell process at the 
Southern Pacific plant at San Pedro, Cal., in 1889. They had an average 
absorption of 14.17 pounds per cubic foot. The remaining 93 per cent of the 
piles, about 13,000 in number, were treated with English creosote at the 
Southern Pacific plant at West Oakland, Cal., by the boiling process patented 
by John D. Isaacs and W. G. Curtis in 1895. Their average absorption was 
about 10 pounds per cubic foot. 

A careful inspection was made of 4098 of these piles, and from 23 per cent 
to 87 per cent of those examined in the various structures were found to 
have been attacked by shipworms and Limnoria lignorum, generally in knots 
or through injuries from abrasion, punctures, etc. 

At the time these piles were examined a hole filled with creosote was found 
in one of the sections cut below the mud line from Pile No. 1, Dock A, treated 
in 1890. It is thought that the chances of changes having occurred in this 
creosote are small and that it may fairly be considered to be representative 
of the original creosote. The analysis of this sample, which was made by 
von Schrenk and Kammerer, St. Louis, Mo. (A. R. E. A. Transactions, 1922, 
Vol. 23, p. 974) follows: 


Specific gravity at 38° GC........ 2055+ +: ae ee 1.079 
Water: ce Se iin a ha are pen tea © ote ac eee eas 1.0% 
Distillation— 

2108 biG 6 boi ad Be a a ee eee 0.8% 

2357 Gilce ocs acetie eos bag ek ore ie 13.4% 

DBO. Oi a oo einai te cane wncteseie ne aoe ee 20.4% 

B1LD° Ov vs daw ee ens snegieue ste of) oe 17.9% 

Bl sdees oe peer vec litls cate out 28.0% 

Residue ...c0 sofas s aes s See een See 19.5% 
Specific gravity 38/15.5° of 235-315 fraction. ... 21. sees 1.045 
Specific gravity 38/15.5° of 315-355 fraction. .....- 2. eee 1122 
Acids by volume 22... vee eu abe » w leon ta a 2.8% 


Analysis of creosote extracted from this pile will be found on page 115. 

Similar analyses were made of other piles in the laboratories of the Atchi- 
son, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad. Three sections were cut from four piles 
as was done for the Southern Pacific analyses, but in addition to the analysis 
careful measurements were made of the impregnated portion of each pile. 
The following tables show the results of these measurements and analyses. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES Vis 


PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT AND DATA FROM LOGS 


Depth of penetra- |Percentage 


: Diameter of Log tion in inches of Creo- 
Specimen a Total sote area 
: im area @& ; to area of 
Maximum | Minimum | Average sq. in. Maximum | Minimum | entire log 
Air 
3 Side A 14.09 12.56 Teaco 139.25 4.13 1.81 69.2 
3 Side B 13.47 12.38 12.93 132.56 3.56 2.06 69.7 
Average 13.78 12g (Bt ale: 135.90} 3.85 1.94 69.5 
Water | 
3 Side A 12.25 L133 es 2 110.10 4.75 1.94 (Oi¥ 
3 Side B 12.50 150 12.00 112.503 3.88 1.50 64.9 
Average 12.38 11.44 11.91 1130 4.32 Erie 68.7 
Mud 
3 Side A 11.19 10.47 10.83 95.96 3.94 1.56 71.6 
3 Side B 11.44 -10.56 11.00 96.20 4.75 2.63 86.2 
Average ioe 10.52 10.92 96.08 4.35 - 2210 78.9 
Air 
10 Side A 11.88 10.88 11.38 103.36 5.66 0.41 81.6 
10 Side B 11.81 10.97 139 102.91 5.64 0.38 61.4 
Average 11.85 10.93 11.39 103 .14 5.65 0.40 eS 
Water 
10 Side A 11.44 10.38 10.91 96.31 8.25 0.28 61.4 
10 Side B 11.25 10.50 10.88 94.56 1.94 0.34 29.3 
Average 135 10.44 10.89 95.44 5.10 0.31 45.4 
Mud 
10 Side A 9.94 8.94 9.44 70.95 6.75 0.28 59.9 
10 Side B 10.03 9.13 9.58 72.93 2.78 0.34 40.9 
Average 9.99 9.04 9.51 71.94 4.77 Ons 50.4 
Air 
14 Side A 16.07 13.88 14.98 167 .09 4.94 mo: 69.5 
14 Side B 15.97 14.00 14.99 174.16 vice 1.00 77.9 
Average 16.02 13.94 14.99 170.63 7.35 bea lte Ufetott 
Water 
14 Side A 14.00 fons, 13.66 145.38 Sisstes 0.81 49.2 
14 Side B 13.88 13.00 13.44 141.47 3.94 Tez 2 lattes! 
Average 13.94 13.16 13255 143.43 3.66 12.02 5o.2 
Mud 
14 Side A 12.06 11.25 11.65 109.80 2.94 0.81 46.7 
14 Side B — 12.13 11.25 11.69 108.25 2.66 0.63 47.9 
Average 12.10 1.25 LGC 109 .02 2.80 0.72 AT aS 
Air 
37 Side A 15.00 14.13 14.957 167.25 3.50 1.50 50.4 
37 Side B 15.81 14.16 14.99 169.03 4.00 153 48.9 
Average 15.41 14.15 14.78 168.14 3.75 1252 49.7 
Water 
37 Side A 14.34 13.78 14.06 158.68 3.28 1.25 45.2 
37 Side B 14.50 13.69 14.10 159.46 2.13 0.75 39.8 
Average 14.42 13.74 14.08 159.07 2271 1.00 42.5 
Mud 
37 Side A 12.63 12.00 IP By 119.36 1.94 oi 44.0 
37 Side B 12.56 12.19 12.38 121.00 3.19 1.38 53.9 


Average 12.60 12.10 12.35 124.68 2.57 1.35 49.0 


PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


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INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 115 


Analyses of four other piles from the Long Wharf made by von Schrenk 
and Kammerer, St. Louis, are reported in the Proceedings of the American 
Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 23 (1922) page 973, as follows: 


PILES FROM Dock A, SOUTHERN PACIFIC Co., CREOSOTED 1890 


Pees MDCT. wee ee ee ee 1 4 
Pe ce ees 1-2 1-4 1-7 4-] 4-4 4-8 
Mente tye el. . Air Water Mud Air Water Mud 
% Creosote in treated part....| 48.97 | 48.17 | 58.24 | 38.16 | 37.93 | 39.82 
CO i a 11.64 | 38.53 | 26.61 14.0 28.6 19.81 
BAGS (yk ea es 1.093 | 1.086 | 1.085 | 1.047 1.042 1.044 
ON es enlace 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.5% | 0.7% | 0.4% | 0.4% 
PN ee oy es wien ss 1.0 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.9 0.4 
Co se 3.5 2.9 4.2 48.0 43.6 50.6 
tl CG 13.9 22.0 22.7 16.3 21.5 13.8 
0) 05 oe er A eat | 18.3 19.0 8.2 8.7 10.2 
i es eS OGG ok... 32.9 32.0 29.5 12.7 13.9 13.2 
eRe as J hina eee. 27.0 24.5 24.0 1362 11.0 11.4 
Sp. Gr. at 38°/15.5° C 
CN Se ae 1.044 | 1.037 1.0386 | 1.048 | 1.029 | 1.033 
SUS i aie ae ae 1.112 D107 PeLLONe 1 105 PATOS Se 107 
Tar acids by volume.......... 2.0009) 302%.) 2.5% 1.5% 3% aye 
USS. CS a 23 oF 
SOLS USS, 23-2 23-2 23-6 37-1 37-5 37-10 
Br URSCG he is oc ws ois Air Water Mud Air Water Mud 
% Creosote in treated oe eke 26.57 | 28.59 | 61.36 | 57.91 49.39 | 55.65 
% Moisture. . meee. | 20-96 1:32.30 | 34.39 | 13.78 132552 | 25.90 
Sp. Gr. at Oe ieee. 1.056 1.042 | 1.041 1.093 | 1.084 | 1.0838 
Re i ss ann » O20 75) - 025%. | -0.4% 127, 1 0.075), Ooo, 
8 AGO a a 1.9 0.7 0.8 O22 0.1 0.7 
ME SUR ae 38.8 48.4 53.0 4.0 30 5.4 
PS a Wy eg 18.3 18.3 21.6 Zou 23.3 
Lo 9.4 6.9 8.6 1822 22.0 22e5 
ee cig ee ton, os 16.5 13.0 10.3 Seo Bled 26.0 
On 15.0 12:2 9.0 23.3 20.7 21-2 
Sp. Gr. at 38°/15.5° C 
0g Se 1.034 | 1.034 1.038 1.039 | 1.038 1.0389 
en 11064 aL 10n 1  ii4 tel 25 1.114 1.118 
Tar Acids by volume..........| 1.2% 1.2% 173% eG 


A paper presented by Mr. F. B. Ridgway before the American Wood Pre- 
servers’ Association (Proceedings A. W. P. A., 1914, page 194) describes 
the material used in two trestles built by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 
Railroad across Galveston Bay, Tex., and the following information is ab- 
stracted from this paper. 

The original structure was built in 1875 on creosoted piling. In 1895 this 
trestle was rebuilt, again using creosoted piling and leaving many of the 1875 
piles in place. This trestle was dismantled in 1912 and the piles pulled. 

The piles used in the 1895 structure, 3107 in number, were all long leaf 
yellow pine with the exception of 110 which were red cedar. The pine piles 
were steamed for 24 hours at a pressure of about 55 pounds, and 12 hours 


116 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


additional at from 47 to 50 pounds. A vacuum was then maintained for 4 
hours and then creosote injected until an absorption of 24 pounds per cubic 
foot was obtained. 

A careful inspection made in 1905 showed no serious damage to the piles 
by marine borers, and it was estimated, when the structure was removed in 
1912, that not over 10 per cent were seriously enough damaged to make them 
unfit for further use. 

No analysis was made of the creosote used in 1895, but it was an English 
product, and analyses of the creosote extracted from sections cut below the 
mud line indicate that it was low boiling and very rich in solids, especially 
naphthalene. 

The analysis of the creosote extracted from the sections cut below the mud 
line from the 1875 and 1895 piles was as follows: 


Mup SEcTIONS 
1895 Piles (3 and 4) 


TooLiG. aC. saree ne <5 ee ee ee ee None 
170°C 2200 Fe Ore ae oe ee 1.3% Semi-solid 
200” G.-210 PG See oats: eee omen 3.8% Solid 
210°: Ci- Bb oe Coates oer ele ene 44.4% Solid 
285° C.-2907 7 Cs eee en ee ee ee 18.0% Semi-solid 
270° Ci-BIG TRG soe) ee ee ee 11.6% Liquid (some solid) 
315° 185 OC on ee cts eee 9.1% Solid 
Residue x7... sicactese seen 1 coe tee ian 11.6% 

99.8% 


Mup SECTIONS 
1875 Piles (1 and 2) 


TO VIO Gs ace ts ee are None 
1702G.-200°R CO. . Fe oee. soe eee eee 5% Semi-solid 
200% (Cu-210 °C. a, oy ee ee 1.1% Solid 
Zi Se CG c2 8D Cn ene Ae ete ee ees 21.4% Solid 
935 % C2708 C heen eee 26.2% Solid 
DTD ).-B 16 5G ec hone. coe ee ee 17.6% Liquid (some solid) 
SLOCIC.-856 es, hel teks Soe eee 14.8% Solid 
Residtieroo fn 02s. Ween eee eee 18.9% 

100.0% 


“Out of an unknown number of yellow pine piling creosoted in 1875, 
exact amount of injection (chiefly a light treatment) unknown, and exact 
process of seasoning, also unknown, after 38 years’ standing in Galveston 
Bay, some few still in sound condition, but the majority very badly attacked 
by Limnoria and Teredo and a great number almost completely eaten away 
from mud line to water line. 

“Out of about 3,000 creosoted yellow pine piling, strictly long leaf, crea- 
soted in 1895, with a low distilling creosote oil, containing approximately 
60 per cent of naphthalene and between 12 and 15 per cent of “tar acids,” 
an oil which would be excluded by practically all of the widely used present- 
day specifications in this country, seasoned by heavy steaming (probably 
by many considered excessive), injection of oil 24 pounds per cubic foot 
of wood, have stood in Galveston Bay under heavy traffic for 18 years 
and over 90 per cent still good.” 


Analyses of other piles from these structures were reported in Forest Ser- 
vice Circular 98 (1908) as follows: 


117 


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INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 119 


Another report on piles of long service is presented by Mr. Ernest Bateman 
in Forest Service Circular 199, 1912. The two piles examined were treated 
by the Bethell Process, but nothing was known as to the source of the creo- 
sote or the amount injected. 


DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS 


Pile No. 1—This pile, said to have been in service 30 years, was -per- 
fectly preserved, showing no indications of decay nor of attack by Teredo. 
The portion above water was badly checked. It was received in three sec- 
tions: Section 1, taken from above the water line; section 2, taken from 
sae the mud line; section 3, taken from the lower end of the pile in the 
mud. 


Pile No. 2.—This pile, which had been creosoted and placed in the Biloxi 
Bay trestle in 1879, and removed in July, 1910, had been attacked by 
Teredo, especially near the water line. Only a portion of the whole pile, 
approximately 6 feet long, extending 3 feet above and 38 feet below the 
water line, was received. This will be considered as three sections: Sec- 
tion 1, above the water line; section 2, at the water line; section 3, below 
the water line. 


EXAMINATION FOR THE QUANTITY OF CREOSOTE PRESENT 


Samples from the several portions of the piles were taken by borings dis- 
tributed over the entire cross section. A weighed portion of the average 
samples from each section thus obtained was treated with chloroform; 
and the loss in weight after treatment and drying was determined. The 
loss includes all the creosote, all the rosin, and all the moisture. The 
extracted material was then treated with a sodium carbonate solution, and 
the dissolved rosin was recovered by precipitating it with acid. Moisture 
determinations were made on separate portions of the original sample. 
Then the amount of rosin and moisture was subtracted from the total of 
creosote, rosin and water. The result was calculated in pounds of creosote 
per cubic foot of wood. Measurements of the relative proportions of the 
treated and untreated area of each cross section were then made. From 
these measurements and the previous calculations, estimates were made of 
the quantity of creosote in the treated portion only. The results obtained 
are given in Table 1. 


TABLE 1. QUANTITY OF CREOSOTE IN TWo PILES 


AMOUNT OF 


CREOSOTE FOUND PER CUBIC FOOT 
PILE | SECTION 


NO. NO. Entire Treated 
Cross Section. Portion Only. 

Pounds Pounds 

1 1 2.6 4.5 

1 2 102%, 15.3 

1 3 12.0 pat 

2 1 10.4 17.0 

Ps 2 5.8 16.5 

2: 3 125 17.9 


In the case of pile No. 2 the amount of creosote in the entire cross section 
at the water line (sec. 2) is only about half of that in either of the other 
two sections; but when calculated for the treated portion only it is nearly 
the same. This difference is due to the loss of a great portion of the creo- 
soted wood in this section, making the proportion of untreated to treated 
wood much higher than in the other two cases. The proportion of the 
treated area in the three sections of this pile as received at the laboratory 
was: Section 1, 61 per cent treated; section 2, 35 per cent treated; section 
3, 64 per cent treated. 


120 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


ANALYSIS OF EXTRACTED OILS 


To determine the quality of the creosote, the oil was extracted from a 
large volume of chips by chloroform. ‘The resulting extract was then freed 
from rosin by the use of sodium carbonate, and from chloroform by dis- 
tillation. The residual creosote was then analyzed according to the method 
described in Forest Service Circulars 112 and 191. The results of these 
analyses are given in Tables 2 and 38. 


TABLE 2—-RESULTS OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION AND INDEX OF REFRACTION 
DETERMINATIONS OF CREOSOTE EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 1 


Percentage weight of distillate Average 
Temperature = index of 
refraction 
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 of 2 and 3 
205 te 2: OSs Rubee ee nae 
215 2.0 2 2.02" Sat aaa 
225 15.5 26 a Ty 2s cee 
235 is 8.2 { 12.0 8.5 1.5922 
245 { ook Bro 1.5920 
255 \ 13.7 { aah 2.0 1.5921 
265 2.6 1.9 1.5939 
275 6.6 2.4 2.5 1.5981 
285 5.0 3.2 3.3 1.6041 
295 6.2 4.1 3.5 1.6123 
305 6.0 4.8 4.3 1.6203 
320 10.5 8.6 7.9 1.6310 
Residue 41.6 38.4 32; 5 Gee eee 


TABLE 3—-RESULTS OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION AND INDEX OF REFRACTION 
DETERMINATIONS OF CREOSOTE EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 2 


Percentage weight of distillate Average 
Temperature index of 
refraction 
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 of 2 and 3 
ad OF 
235 4.0 6.0 1.5795 
245 1.8 4.6 o4 1.5825 
255 126 a2 1.5842 
265 2.1 \ 
275 Oat f Soe 8.9 1.5872 
285 3.0 Ae 9.2 1.5945 
295 2.4 22 Sit 1.5997 
305 1H 26 oe 2 0 ae eee 
Residue i 81.2 85.8 64:4 a ae Se 


None of the sections contained an appreciable amount of light oils. The 
creosote from section 3 of pile No. 1, in which presumably less change in 
the character of the oil had occurred, contained 2.5 per cent of oils distilling 
below 205°. The same creosote contained over 40 per cent of naphthalene 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES IEA | 


oils (distilling between 205° and 255° C.). The other two sections of the 
same pile also contained considerable quantities of naphthalene. 

The distillation of the creosote from pile No. 2 gave a very small per- 
centage of distillate (below 305° C.) and a large amount of residue. The 
oil from section 3 (below the water line) of this pile, which yielded the 
largest amount of distillate, contained only 12.6 per cent of oils volatile 
below 255° C., and little or no naphthalene. 

Sulphonation tests carried out on the fraction from 285° to 305° C. and 
305° to 320° C. of the creosote from pile No. 1 failed to give any sulphona- 
tion residue. This oil resembles an imported creosote oil and is probably a 
pure coal-tar product. The index of refraction values of the fractions 
above 295° C. are a little low, but this could easily be due to the presence 
of a small amount of rosin which had escaped separation before the oil 
was analyzed. The color, odor and character of the fraction were like those 
of coal-tar creosote. 

Sulphonation tests on the portions 285° to 305° C. of the creosote from 
pile No. 2 yielded a sulphonation residue of 2.6 per cent. The index of 
refraction values, as well as the color and odor, of this oil resemble those 
of water-gas-tar creosote. Later information on the testing of creosotes 
shows that this material could not be definitely identified as water gas tar 
creosote, and it may have been a pure coal tar creosote. 


CHANGE IN COMPOSITION OF THE CREOSOTE BY EXPOSURE 


Inspection of Table 2 indicates that whatever loss of creosote occurred 
in the several sections through leaching and volatilization while the piles 
were in use must have occurred in the lighter fractions. If we assume that 
no change has occurred in the creosote extracted from section 3 of pile 
No. 1 (the portion buried in the mud) and that no change has occurred 
in the higher boiling fractions of the oil from the other two sections of 
this pile, the loss of oil in sections 1 and 2 may be computed as follows: 

The fractions above 275° C. and residue for section 3 amount to 51.3 
per cent of the total; the same portion of the creosote extracted from sec- 
tion 2 amounts to 59.1 per cent. If the oil from section 3 is unchanged, as 
assumed above, the original volume of the oil in section 2 can readily be 
obtained by the proportion 59.1:x = 51.8:100, or x = 115 per cent. That is, 
the creosote extracted from section 2 is the residual of an oil that was 
originally 15 per cent greater in volume. By a similar computation it is 
found that the creosote extracted from section 1 is the residual of a creo- 
sote originally 35 per cent greater in volume. 

The change in composition of the creosote from sections 1 and 2 is shown 
more fully in Table 4, in which the fractional distillation is computed on 
the basis of percentage of what is assumed to be the original oil. 


TABLE 4—FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CREOSOTE EXTRACTED FROM PILE 
No. 1 IN PERCENTAGE OF ASSUMED ORIGINAL OIL 


Percentage weight of distillate 


Temperature : ; : 
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 
° C. 225 1.5 15.8 30.8 
245 6.1 13.1 11.0 
275 15.0 6.2 6.4 
320 20.5 18.0 19.0 
Residue 30.8 Boe 82:3 


Table 4 shows that the loss of creosote in that portion of the pile in the 


-water as compared with the loss from the portion buried in the: mud was 


confined to the fraction distilling below 225° C. and that the loss from the 
portion in the air occurred only in the fractions below 245° C. The small 
excess of distillate between 225° and 245° C. in the creosote from section 2 
over that for the same fraction from section 3 may be accounted for by 
the effect which the absence of some of the lower boiling constituents at 


122 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


the lower stages of the distillation produce upon the fractionation of the 
large excess in the distillate between 245° and 275° C. of the oil from sec- 
tion 3. 

Allowing for the losses as computed above, sections 1 and 2 of this pile 
originally had 16.1 and 17.6 pounds, respectively, of creosote per cubic 
foot of the treated portions. Section 2 thus agrees very well with section 3 
(see Table 1). But the figure for section 1 is so much at variance with 
the figures for sections 2 and 8 that this section probably lost creosote in 
such a manner as to leave the composition of the residual oil unchanged, 
as by “bleeding.” The original volume of oil must therefore have been 
more than 35 per cent greater than the present. 

Similar changes occurred in pile No. 2, except that in this case section 
2, which is the portion at the water line, ‘changed most. This may be due 
to its position, where it was subject to the influences both of sun and 
water; and also to the fact that, being riddled by Teredo, more opportunity 
was afforded for leaching of the creosote. 


SUMMARY 


Practically no light oils (oils distilling below 205° C.) were found in 
the piles after their long period of service. If originally present, they were 
lost by volatilization and leaching. 

The creosote in the pile which was perfectly preserved contained orig- 
inally at least 40 per cent of naphthalene fractions, a large portion of which 
remained in the wood. The creosote in the pile, ‘which was less perfectly 
preserved, contained little or no naphthalene. 

The pitchy matter, which on distillation formed the residue above 320° 
C. (pile No. 2), is seemingly of an inert character and little objectionable 
to Teredo. A heavy treatment with creosote consisting largely of this 
material did not entirely save the pile from attack. 

Loss of oil from that portion of the pile in the water, in the case of the 
creosote in pile No. 1, which is a pure coal-tar creosote, apparently occurred 
only in the fraction distilling below 225° C 

Similar analyses have been made of sections of piles sent to the office of 
the Committee from various harbors. These analyses were made in the 
laboratory of the Barrett Company through the courtesy of Mr. Sumner R. 
Church, manager of the Research Department of that company. The meth- 
ods used by the Barrett Company and by Mr. Mattos in the Southern Pacific 


laboratory, were similar and are described as follows: 


The specimens were reduced to shavings, placed in a refluxing apparatus 
of the Soxhlet type, and extracted with benzol. The creosote extracted from 
each specimen was freed from benzol by distillation and tested for specific 
gravity, tar acids, naphthalene, and indices of refraction on fractions, float 
test on residue and unsulphonated residue. The nature of fractions was also 
noted. The specimens were weighed and measured before extraction, but 
the measurement included the holes in the pieces (made by shipworms) 
which made the calculation of “pounds creosote per cubic foot” an approxi- 
mation only. 

Specimen No. 1—From Warehouse No. 1 of Norfolk and Western Railway 
at Lamberts Point, Va. Pile driven in 1890 and said to have been treated 
under specifications requiring 22 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. Pile 
was pine, and section was cut from portion in water. Live shipworms were 
extracted in November, 1922. 


Specimen No. 2—From Warehouse No. 2 of Norfolk and Western Railway 
at Lamberts Point, Va. Creosoted under same specifications as Specimen 
No. 1 and driven in 1892. Section cut from pine pile between low water and 
mud line. Pile had been attacked by shipworms, and pallets and shells were 
found in it in November, 1922. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 123 


Specimen No. 3—From Coal Pier No. 2 fender system Norfolk & Western 
Railway, Lamberts Point, Va. Pile and treatment same as No. 1 and No. 2. 
Section cut 114 feet above mean low water. No borers found. 

Specimen No. 4—From Pensacola Naval Station, Pensacola, Fla. Pine 
pile driven in 1902. (Fig. 26.) Specifications required absorption of 20 
pounds of creosote per cubic foot. One hundred and ninety-eight piles in 
structure. In 1906 five piles were so badly damaged as to require renewal, 
and entire structure is now unsafe. Destruction was caused mainly by 
Bankia and Limnoria. 


CREOSOTE ANALYSES OF SPECIMENS NOs. 1 To 4 
Spec. No.1 Spec. No.2 Spec. No.3 Spec. No. 4 


Volume extracted ............ 66.9 cu.in. 938.0cu.in. 49.5cu.in. 74.8 cu. in. 
Weight extracted (dry)...... 363.4 gr. 6638.2 gr. 414.3 gr. 561.5 gr. 
Weight creosote extracted.... 23.6 gr. 24.9 gr. 55.5 gr. 106.7 gr. 
Per cent creosote extracted by 
WL as Oe 6.5 3.8 13.1 18.8 
Pounds creosote per cubic foot. 1.4 0.9 4.2 5.5 
PE TOCOTU WALLET. oc ces es cece 4.4 4.5 5.2 5.4 
Specific gravity 38/15.5° C.... 1.051 1.040 1.041 1.081 
450) OIC Es Si Trace be None None 
Per cent naphthalene ........ 8.2 4 8.3 None 
Spec. grav., 235° C. to 315° C.. 1.013 1.010 1.023 1.015 
38/15.5° C. 
Spec. grav., 315° C. to 355° C.. 1.088 1.059 1.086 1.025 
oo/1b.0- GC. 
Index of refraction of frac. 
210 to. 255 GC. @.60° C.. 1.542 1.579 bs vai 1.546 
Index of refraction of frac. 
2a5° GC. to 315° C. @ 60° C.. 1.592 1.594 1.590 1.581 


* Not determined. Insufficient oil. 


UNSULPHONATED RESIDUE FRACTION 
Pere tne al Ge. ee te ee aoe 2.4% 
Pe eeO a0 Gace ces eee ae 1.2% 
DISTILLATION TESTS 
Spec. No.1 Spec. No. 2 Spec. No. 3 Spec. No. 4 


epee tO, Gs... se sass: 0.00 0.00 0.00 Trace 
1 Oe Ee Oye aaa Trace liquid Trace 0.00 0.00 
OME ae 3.0 solid 0.8 liquid Trace 0.4 liquid 
OE Oa 8.9 solid 4.7 solid 6.4 solid 1.9 liquid 
(0 GW er 25.8 solid 18.2 solid 36.2 semi-solid 10.0 liquid 
[0 Sg 46.9 liquid 36.1 liquid 56.6 liquid 25.5 liquid 
GSN CS an 73.0 solid 69.6 solid 80.4 solid 72.1 liquid 
Float test—residue @ 70° 

Vi SS ane oo = S@C.. 28 Sec. 23 sec. Too hard 


Specimen No. 5—From Structure No. 1, Naval Wharf at St. Thomas, 
Virgin Islands. Pine pile section cut at point 9 feet below mean water level. 
(Fig. 27). Piles were treated with 16 pounds of creosote, driven in 1918, 
and removed in 1922, being practically destroyed by shipworms. 


AGAINST BORERS 


PROTECTION 


124 


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‘SUBUO_T ANIUVIA JO MYUOM DNIMOHS CuvVA AAVN VIOOVSNE WOU ATId JO NOILIAS—9¢ ‘SIH 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 


Fic. 27—SECTION FROM CREOSOTED PINE PILE—16 LB. TREATMENT—U. S. NAVAL 
STATION, St. THOMAS, V. I. 


Driven 1918—Removed 1923. Section immediately below low water 


125 


126 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


Specimen No. 6—Pile from same lot as No. 5, delivered at St. Thomas but 
not driven. Has been exposed to weather since 1918. 


Specimen No. 7—From pile from Pier No. 1, San Juan, Porto Rico, driven 
in June, 1917, and removed September 21, 1922. Pine pile treated at Gulf- 
port, Miss., under specifications requiring 16 pounds absorption per cubic 
foot. Section cut at the mud line. This section was cut up in order to 
secure biological specimens; it was heavily attacked by shipworms, Martesia 
and Limnoria. 


Specimen No. 8—From Lighthouse Pier at San Juan, Porto Rico. No 
record of treatment available. (Fig. 28). It had 8 years’ service and was 
destroyed by Limnoria. It was cut up for other species and none were found. 


CREOSOTE ANALYSES OF SPECIMENS NOS. 5 TO 8 
Spec. No.5 Spec. No.6 Spec. No.7 Spec. No.8 


Pounds creosote per cubic foot. 3.8 17.4 7.6 8.0 
Percent: waters. os: 6 ae 8.4 11.6 3.6 3.3 
Specific gravity 38.5/15 5° C.. 1.107 1.108 1.078 1.061 
Tar acids—per cent.......... 20D 6.0 Not deter- Trace 
mined 
Per cent naphthalene ........ 6.8 None None None 
Spec: Srav., 200 OC. to 310 Oo. 1.015 1.011 
38/15.b° C. 
Spec. grav., 315° C. to 355° C.. 1.068 
88/15.5° C. 
Index of refraction of frac. 
0° Go fo At) 2G. .te CU 1.485 1.500 
Index of refraction of frac. 
170° Coto 2Z00— Crn@ 60 Gs 1.490 1.500 
Index of refraction of frac. 
200° G. to 2107 *G.-@: 60" -C:. 1.545 1.563 1.488 1.505 
Index of refraction of frac. 
910° GC, to. 236 4G. Grou Ge, 1.568 1.562 1.490 L521 
Index of refraction of frac. 
235° Coto 210stG 2 30 U.. 1.584 1.575 1.510 1.568 
Index of refraction of frac. 
270° C.*to Sib noo -G.. 1.601 1.592 1.587 1.582 
Index of refraction of frac. 
315° Gy to.8bb GeO miwio0s. Gy ca 1.626 1.593 1.600 
Unsulphonated residue ...... None 0.8% 4.0% 5.6% 
DISTILLATION TESTS 
Spec. No. 5 Spec. No. 6 Spec. No. 7 Spec. No.8 
0° Coto 110 2Ce eae 0.1% 2.3% liquid 0.7% liquid 
170° G.-to. 200° > Cree 0.2% 4.6% liquid 1.6% liquid 
200° G. to 210°" Cee 0.38% 5.2% liquid 2.3% liquid 
210° Cyto 285% Cae orscind 1.6% liquid 7.5% liquid 5.2 % liquid 
2Sb2 °C. to 270°C... ae 12.4% liquid 12.8% liquid 17.6% liquid 
soli 
270° Coto. 615° =C.. 2 ae mate 33.2% liquid 31.5% liquid 36.1% liquid 
soli 
315° C. to 355° C.....61.8% greasy 59.2% partly 51.4% semi- 63.1% waxy 
solid solid solid 
Float test — residue at 
70°: Coe eee eee 137 sec. 48 see. AO see. 96 sec. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 127 


Specimen No. 9—Section of pine pile from foundation of 150-ton revolv- 
ing crane at the plant of the Newport News Shipbuilding Company. (Fig. 
29). These piles were treated by the Norfolk Creosoting Company in 1897 
with a 16-pound treatment. The creosote was purchased under the follow- 
ing specification: 


‘All oil shall be the heavy or dead oil of coal tar, containing not more 
than 142% of water, and not more than 5% of tar, and not more than 5% 
of carbolic acid. 

“It must not flash below 185° F. nor burn below 200° F. and it must be 
fluid at 118° F. 

“It must begin to distill at 320° F. and must yield between that tem- 
perature and 410° F., of all substances, less than 20% by volume. 

“Between 410° F. and 470° F. the yield of naphthalene must be not less 
than 40% nor more than 60% by volume. 

“At two degrees above its liquefying point it must have a specific gravity 
of maximum 1.05 and minimum 1.015.” 


See 


Fig. 28—SECTION OF CREOSOTED PILE FROM LIGHTHOUSE WHARF, SAN JUAN, 
Porto Rico, TAKEN FROM LOW WATER LINE, 


Built, 1898—Renewed, 1906 


On account of the importance of this foundation it has been inspected 
frequently and carefully. Shipworm attack first appeared about 1920, or 
after 23 years’ service, and the pile analyzed was removed in 1922, after 25 
years’ service. 


128 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


The report of the extracted creosote follows: 


TESTS ON CREOSOTE RECOVERED FROM MARINE PILING 


Pounds..of. creosote per.ciijitus?.. ..o055 ae 6.9 
Specific gravity .38/15.5° Gs 1329.59 a ee 105 
RETORT DISTILLATION 
Sep. Totals 
Percentage Percentage Nature 
170° C. 0.0 0.0 
200 0.0 0.0 
(410% FF.) -210 0.0 0.0 
235 7.0% 7.0% Solid 
(470° F.) 248.5 11.1 18.1 Solid (18.7% by vol. See 
Spec.) 
270 19.6 37.7 Solid—liquid 
315 17.3 55.0 Liquid 
355 23.5 78.5 Solid 
Residue 20.3 98.8 
Loss iP 


Tests on Fractions Sp. Gr. 38/15.5° Index of Refrac- Unsulfonated 
C. tion of Frac. 60° C. Residue 


210-235° C. spears 1.581 Bree 
235-815° C. 1.021 1.592 3.3% 
315-355° C. 1.052 ete 2.4% 


Float Test on Residue 70° C.—65 seconds 
Tar acids, by contraction 9.8% 
by liberation 7.9% 
% Naphthalene 9.6 (82% of Distillate to 250° C.) 


The naphthalene content of the extracted creosote indicates that in all 
probability the specifications were complied with, and it is of interest to 
note that, while a large portion of the low boiling components of the orig- 
inal creosote are no longer present, a considerable amount of naphthalene 
remains after the 25 years of service. 

The Turtle River Docks of the Southern Railway at Brunswick, Ga., were 
built in sections at different times, and the Committee has been so fortunate 
as to secure specimens from piles driven in 1909 and 1913, and with them 
to obtain an unusually good record of their treatment, and an analysis of 
four specimens cut from the 1909 piles as made by the Forest Service in 
September, 1909. : 

In September, 1923, two specimens each of the 1909 and 1913 piles were 
sent the Committee by the Southern Railway, and these specimens were 
analyzed by the Barrett Company under the direction of Mr. S. R. Church, 
whose report follows: 


OBJECT: To extract and test creosotes from four sections of marine piling 
from Brunswick, Ga. 


ABSTRACT: Specimens No. 1 and No. 2 contained 3.0 and 3.3 pounds of 
creosote per cubic foot, while specimens No. 3 and No. 4 con- 
tained 3.7 and 2.8 pounds per cubic foot respectively. The tests 
on.the extracted creosotes, in general, compare favorably with 
the original oils, considering their time of exposure, particu- 
larly in the case of piles No. 1 and No. 2. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 129 


The extracts from No. 1 and No. 2 are typical coal tar distillates 
containing considerable naphthalene. The extract from No. 3 
inner layer yielded 38% of naphthalene. The creosote from 
No. 4 yielded but 8.2% of naphthalene. 


In general the outer layers of the specimens yield creosotes 
heavier in gravity and distillation and containing less naph- 
thalene and tar acids than the inner layers. 


Four specimens of marine piling were received from the Committee on 
Marine Piling Investigations of the National Research Council for examina- 
tion. The identification of the sections is as follows: 

All four specimens of the piling were cut from the Turtle River Docks 
of the Southern Railway at Brunswick, Ga. Two sections (marked No. 3 
and No. 4) were driven in the summer of 1909 while the other two-sections 
(marked No. 1 and No. 2) were from a group of very carefully selected 
piles with open grain and considerable sap wood. These were driven in 
1913 and were reported to have been handled and driven with extreme care 
to prevent damage and that all skin had been removed from them. These 
two were also partly seasoned in a stack of piling for two months. Piles 
No. 3 and No. 4 were treated in May and June, 1909, at the Southern Creo- 
soting Company’s plant at Brunswick, Ga., and the other two were treated 
at the same plant in November, 1913. The tests on the creosotes used and 
the treatment given the piles are given in the data. 


The tags on the specimens received were marked as follows: 

Specimen No. 1—Cut out at half way between high and low water mark. 
Specimen No. 2—Cut out half way between low water and mud line. 
Specimen No. 3—Cut out at mean low water line. (*See note.) 
Specimen No. 4—Cut out at mean low water line. (*See note.) 


The specimens were carefully examined and calipered after which they 
were photographed. The water determinations on the total specimens were 
run, using the Dean & Stark apparatus, and are based on radial borings 
which represent an average sample of the pile. The pounds per cubic foot 
are based on careful measurements and extractions but these would neces- 
sarily be approximations since the measurements would include any holes 
in the pieces. These determinations were also made on “outer” and “inner” 
layers of the creosoted portions of the piles, the outer half of the creosote 
ring being called the “outer layer’ while the inner half of the creosote 
ring is termed the “inner layer.” These layers were reduced to shavings 
and extracted separately with benzol in a refluxing apparatus of the 
Soxhlet type after which the benzol was carefully distilled from the ex- 
tracted oils. The following tests were run on the oils: Specific gravity, 
retort distillation noting nature of fractions, indices of refraction of frac- 
tions, specific gravity of fractions, float test on residue, per cent tar acids, 
per cent tar bases, per cent naphthalene and unsulphonated residue. 

Inasmuch as specimen No. 4 was a comparatively small sample and the 
inner and outer layers were both attacked by Teredo to the same extent 
the total combined creosote was tested in this case. 


CONDITION OF WOOD AND PRESERVATION OF PILING 


Specimen No. 1—Attacked slightly by Limnoria on one side and slightly 
roughened in few spots possibly by contact with boats. The pile otherwise 
was in an excellent state of preservation. The specimen had evidently 
developed slight cracks since it was cut. There were no borer holes. 
(Fig. 30.) 

Specimen No. 2—This pile had not been attacked either by Limnoria or 
Teredo. With the exception of slight cracks which had developed since the 
specimen was cut, it was entirely smooth and in an excellent state of preser- 
vation. (Fig. 31.) 


Specimen No. 3—This pile had been badly attacked by Limnoria and also 


*NoTeE: Specimens No. 3 and No. 4 were marked alike as above but Mr. T. G. 
Townsend states that, from the measurements, it looks as if No. 4 should be from 
between high and low water and No. 3 from between low water and bottom, 


130 


PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


contained a few borer holes. Its surface was considerably indented from 
the results of the attack by Limnoria. (Fig. 81.) 

Specimen No. 4—A large portion of this pile had been eaten away by 
Teredo. Both the heart wood and the creosote layer were seriously attacked 
and the specimen was very reticular in structure. It was in a poor state 
of preservation. (Fig. 30.) 


MEASUREMENTS OF SPECIMENS 


The following measurements were taken by Mr. T. G. Townsend: 


Specimen No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 
Average diameter, (inches)% © ..04% ..4sean <a. ine eS 12% ALS a6 12 
iAre*iny yOarsc shane ae Pe idhs 2'e «Rem cho ee eee 102 95 55 60 
Summerwood (approximate percentage)............. 40 40 


Number of rings in 3d, 4th and 5th inch from center... 49 60 AT 36 


Average number of rings per inch in 3d, 4th and 5th 


inch -fromecenter. end. sss face oie is estate eee 16 20 16 12 
Percentage of summerwood in 3d, 4th and 5th inch 

from: center: #3 Se 76.wds 2s eee ee 4 40 40 60 

RINGS FROM CENTER 
dst neh? ois cers ans mk Fe eee oats nner ee oe 6 7 4 4 
BO INCH oe ioe Pele nw waters wee oe eae Re ee 10 12 5 4 
OC “INCH "eos cos sb ae ree ae ma ee ae ne) Cee 14 18 6 9 
4th inch os. os 2 «+ cate eee els te eee ee 18 16 9 13 
Sth. inch 0a ese. coe Oe Oe ee 17 oe 32 14 
6th inch (In‘No; 2-—%") sy, Pe eee eee 24, 21 16 
(In'No.1—56") ccs... oe ee ee ee 12 
RINGS FROM SURFACE 
Ist “inch® 22 he ent a ee ee 28 28 32 16 
Bd “IVC ycne las ce one teh suse. bose a uk Foo a ears Ee 20 20 9 14 
SALINGH kre. Bees Shel a oes it & tan te 16 16 6 18 
4thinéh is Abe. Gee Bae Aes Se 16 16 5 9 
Sth “Meh s fPPREP, OLE yas ee ae 12 Bl 3 4 
6th inch (In No. 276) nw a ae eee 8 4 4 
CIn GN 0, 196) o nek aw ecane,s brant © ace dane 1 
CREOSOTE RING 

Depth ’in inthes?. = occ se cee tee ee lee 2% 2% 23% 2% 
Number Of Pings Seo. vite casein add sseGinte he ates 60 60 44 34 
Average per inch ?< 7% of uo est hae ean ee Da 22 16 Bi 
SUmMMerwood" es oo as eae ce be ot ae wane se ere 40 50 


TREATMENT OF PILES 


The piles are reported to have been treated as follows: 
Piles Driven in 19138 (No. 1 and No. 2)—Steam 10 hours at 30 pounds, 
vacuum 3 hours at 26”, oil four hours at 160 pounds, 160° F. Three were 
Partly seasoned in 


re-treated with 20 pound charge on account of damage. 
stack of piling for two months, and all were in good condition. 


All skin 


removed. The treatment was 18 pounds per cubic foot with a combination 
of Barrett and English oils. It is not known whether samples submitted 


are from three re-treated piles or not. 


Piles Driven in 1909 (No. 38 and No. 4)—A treatment of 16 pounds per 


cubic foot was given these piles. 


Forest Service in September, 1909. 
with an average analysis of the original oil are as follows: 


OS Sa 
Pounds per cubic foot. 
Specific gravity ..... 
Oe 


Distillation Fractions 
Pe he wis as 

BUH 24D |: wi. ee 
7S 
BPOSIOD ce cc we 
BGgeg00 2s... 
enn. Co iso. 
ee ie a). 
PUES OD sani. es a 
Se. sig ons ss 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 


PREVIOUS ANALYSIS OF PILES 
Four specimens cut from the piles treated in 1909 were analyzed by the 


AVG. ANALYSIS 
OF ORIG. OIL 


sg end a i 6.7 
eS Sg A cat 1.055 1.066 
Sk ak nae a 4% eee 
“a 8 ee 2.0% 
SEES as ene 43.0 


7.5 


131 


The results of these analyses along 


FOREST SERVICE ANALYSIS 


B 
7.4 
1.060 


2.0% 
43.0 

9:0 
10.0 

6.0 


C 
12.5 
1.070 


1.5% 
37.5 
ie s8) 
3.0 
0 


D 
17.2 
1.073 


2.5% 
37.5 
11.0 
11.5 

7.0 


Fic. 29—PiLeE SECTION WITH 16 LB. CREOSOTE TREATMENT. 


25 YEARS’ SERVICE 


IN 150 Ton CRANE FOUNDATION, NEwport NEws SHIPBUILDING & Dry Dock Co., 
NEwport NEws, VA. 


PROECTION AGAINST BORERS 


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134 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


Fic. 30—PILE SECTIONS FROM TURTLE RIVER DOCKS, SOUTHERN Ry., 
BRUNSWICK, GA. 


A. B.—Pile driven in 1909. 
C. D.—Pile driven in 1918. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 135 


Fic. 31—PiILrE SECTIONS FROM TURTLE RIVER Docks, SOUTHERN RY., 
BRUNSWICK, GA. 


A. B:—Pile driven in 1913 
Cc. D.—Pile driven in 1909 


136 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


OBSERVATIONS 


Piles No. 1 and No. 2 contained 3.0 and 3.8 pounds per cubic foot of creo- 
sote while No. 3 and No. 4 contained 8.7 and 2.8 pounds per cubic foot 
respectively and the outer layers contained slightly less creosote in each case 
excepting No. 4 which contained the same amount in both layers. No. 4 
pile, however, was so badly eaten away that both layers were evidently 
exposed to the same conditions. This reticular structure would also account 
for the low water content of this specimen. 


The oils obtained from piles No. 1 and No. 2 are typical coal tar distil- 
lates having low float tests on residue. The extracted oils are somewhat 
heavier in gravity and distillation than the original oil since they have 
probably lost some of their lighter portions during their long exposure but 
the distillation tests, particularly on the inner layers, compare favorably 
with the distillation on the original oil. The oil fractions obtained were 
largely solid in nature, even the 315° C. fraction containing considerable 
solids. The oils from No. 1 and No. 2 piles are particularly characterized 
by their naphthalene content, especially the inner layers, which contained 
slightly over 17 per cent. The outer layers contained between 6 and 7 per 
cent. The original oil evidently contained considerable naphthalene. The 
tar acid contents were 0.5 per cent and 1.4 per cent on the outer layers 
and 1.2 per cent and 3.1 per cent on the inner layers. It appeared during 
the determination of the tar acids that these results were possibly affected 
by a small quantity of wood distillate obtained with the oils during their 
extraction. The oils from these 1913 specimens contained neither tar bases 
nor unsulphonated residue. 


The oils obtained from piles No. 8 and No. 4 are also heavier in gravity 
and distillation than the original oil with the exception of the inner layer of 
pile No. 3, which yields a higher percentage of distillate at 285° C. and 
355° C. and is lower in gravity. This may be due to the presence of wood 
distillate which possibly accounts for the comparatively high float tests 
on residue obtained on pile No. 3 oils and also the low gravity of distillates. 
The oils from pile No. 4 decomposed at 328° C. and gave a low gravity of 
distillate, which is also due, no doubt, to resinous material extracted with 
the oil. Pile No. 8 is particularly characterized by its very high naphtha- 
lene content, especially in the oil from the inner layer, which contained 
38 per cent as compared to 17.5 per cent in the outer layer. Pile No. 4 
oil contained but 8.2 per cent of naphthalene and a trace of acids as com- 
pared to 2.3 per cent acids in the outer and 0.8 per cent in the inner layers 
of No. 8. The tar acid determinations are probably affected to some extent 
by eS presence of extracted material extracted from the wood 
itself. 


The oils from the outer layers in general are heavier in gravity and dis- 
tillation than the inner layers and contain less naphthalene and acids with 
the exceptions as stated above. The comparatively large differences ob- 
tained between the oils from the inner and outer layers of specimen No. 3 are 
probably due to the fact that this pile was mainly attacked by Limnoria, 
which made the outer layer somewhat reticular in structure while the 


inner layer, though attacked slightly by borers, was comparatively but 
little affected. 


The analysis of extracted creosote does not give exact results because of 
the impossibility of entirely separating the extracted creosote from the 
resinous wood products extracted at the same time, but a study of the re- 
sults gives some idea of the rapidity of leaching at the several locations. 
These results must be considered with the facts of organic variation in 
mind, since the selection of one pile from a series treated may result in the 
analysis of a pile from either extreme. For purposes of comparison the 
amount of creosote supposed to be injected and the amount recovered are ~ 
listed below, using the results of analysis of the pile sections cut below the — 
mud line as the amount of oil originally injected, where this information is 
available. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 137 


Original 
Impreg- Amount 
nation Extracted 
Length of Lbs. per Lbs. per 


Specimen No. Service (Givig Tait. cu. ft. Remarks 

NOs san, Mrancisco, Cal....:.. 29 years 14.17 9.97 Pile good—Bethell process 

INO. 2° San Hrancisco, Cal...... 22 years 10.00 3.18 Pile good—Isaacs & Cur- 
tis process. 

No, a san Mrancisco, Cal...... 20 years 10.00 3.78 Pile good—Isaacs & Cur- 
tis process. 

No. 4 San Francisco, Cal...... 18 years 10.00 4.51 Pile good—Isaaes & Cur- 
tis process. 

Norzt san Mrancisco, Cal...... 29 years 15.19 7.52 Pile good—Bethell process 

Noro sanerrancisco;: Cali csii. i.e eccss 8.59 8.22 Pile good 

Peer eanerrancisco, Calesi.c. ss. -06 4.75 4.85 Pile attacked 

Mosier rancisGO;sCal........ -......- 6.87 6.30 Pile good 

No. 1 Galveston, Texas (1875) 29 years 9.25 6.12 Pile good 

No. 2 Galveston, Texas (1875) 29 years 10.05 6.49 Pile heavily attacked 

No. 8 Galveston, Texas (1895) 18 years 10.60 9.14 Pile good 

No. 4 Galveston, Texas (1895) 18 years 9.28 6.38 Pile attacked 

No. 6 Galveston, Texas (1895) 18 years IS Ee 8.83 Pile good 

Ita GE eats Ge Ga 30 years 12 Ong Pile good—Bethell process 

Pi Omen StlOR, ISS. bc). cee wo se 31 years 5 5.8 Heavy attack — Bethell 
process 

No, “1 Lamberts Point, Va..... 32 years iis 1.4 Light shipworm attack 

“Non 2eluamberts Point, Va...... 30 years 22 0.9 Light shipworm attack 

Nomes Juamberts Point, Vas... «: 30 years 22 4.2 Pile good—Section 1% ft. 
above L. W. 

INO= 4) Pensacola, Fla......... 20 years 20 Deh Attacked in four years. 
Totally destroyed 20. 

NGI ste eROmas, Ve 1... . 3c. 4 years 16 3.8 Piles destroyed 

Pigsmeeis tL NOMtAS OV. Lees oc. 4 years 16 17.4 Piles stored in air 

MOE ua JGaAMe rs Rew. ci. ass 5 years 16 7.6 Piles destroyed 

MGS  AS257a hhGh a eae ee a ae 8 years a 8.0 Piles destroyed by Lim- 
noria 

No. 9 Newport News, Va...... 25 years 16 6.9 Heavy shipworm attack 

Nos tsBrunswick; -Ga.......... 10 years Sue 3.0 Slight Limnoria attack 

INGn eae SCUNS WICK, (Gla. acu cc ss 10 years 18 See Unattacked 

ING rutiswick. G,....60... 14 years 16 ert Heavy Limnoria — light 
shipworm attack 

Geena WACK. Grass iw 6s so. 14 years 16 2.8 Heavy Limnoria and ship- 


worm attack 


Of the specimens analyzed all except No. 4 (Pensacola) and possibly No. 7 
and No. 8 appear to be coal tar creosote. The lower boiling fractions seem 
to have been leached out by the sea water much more rapidly than the higher 
ones, aS was to be expected, but while the San Francisco specimens were 
unattacked with a minimum of 3.18 pounds of retained creosote per cubic 
foot, the Newport News specimen was rather heavily attacked with 6.9 
pounds present. It does not appear probable that the Norfolk & Western 
piles from Lamberts Point could have been attacked until the creosote con- 
tent was much lower. 


Several structures were inspected by a sub-committee of the American 
Railway Engineering Association in 1920 and 1921, with the following 
results: 


SOUTHERN RAILWAY—COAL PIER AT CHARLESTON, 8S. C.—This structure 
was built in the winter of 1914-15 with a mixture of longleaf, loblolly and 
shortleaf pine piles, treated at two plants with 18 pounds of creosote per 
cubic foot. Plant No. 1 used a mixture of English creosote and creosote 
furnished by the Barrett Company, and Plant No. 2 used English creosote, 
the average analyses being as follows: 


138 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


PLANT No.1 PLANT NO. 2 


Specific eravity ss 5.0. 5 ve xs «0 SO er ee 1.08 1.044 
Water fe aye woe er hc in et dee tc es 10 eee rae ae 0.5% 2.0% 
Fractions. 9:0--200° GC. 2540.2... se ee ee 1% 1% 
Fractions.2005—2102°O. 4 cot letis Oa melee ee 1% 4% 
Mractions:210°=235°: 62 Fas. Wes ele a eee ee ae eee 21% 16% 
Fractions 200 (—2 10°" Co or oe eee ee 21% 26% 
Bractions: 270°=310°.G. 2 acaean dae ore een eee 13% 19% 
Fractions S16°=8b0" G.. . koe vos ek ee eee ee 20% 17% 
PRESTAUC | insoasacyirwse core "oe aw Wee nadel oi egal Senet ae Soft Soft 


The treatment at Plant No. 1 was ten hours steaming at a pressure of 35 
pounds, three hours vacuum at 27 inches and three to six hours creosote 
pressure at 175 pounds, while at Plant No. 2 the steaming period was twelve 
hours at 30 pounds, the vacuum three hours at 24 inches, and the impregna- 
tion period two and one-half to four hours at 150 pounds. 

After five years’ service these piles showed a light attack by Limnoria, 
which had become heavy and destructive three years later. The life of the 
structure at this time was estimated to be two or three years longer or a 
total of about ten years. 


CHARLESTON TERMINAL Co. WHARF BUILT. ABOUT 1880. These piles are 
reported to have been treated by placing them in a cylinder with the small 
end projecting. The open end of the cylinder was then sealed and creosote 
forced into the cylinder until it came out of the projecting end of the piles. 
In 1919 some of these piles had been cut off by Limnoria and spliced, but a 


large majority still had an effective diameter of 8 inches after about 40 


years’ service. This pier was burned in 1921. 

The Clyde Line Piers at Charleston, S. C., were built in 1912-13, using 
shortleaf pine piles with a sap ring of over 3 inches. There were 22 pounds 
of English creosote injected, giving at least 34% inches penetration, and a 
very superior treatment was secured. The analysis of the creosote was as 
follows: 


Specific @ravity ..5..0 = os0.c:0 5 ce ou cia's © «api chale eee 1.056 
Water ac on cise ace oc re opm ene es oon 5p ore ainda te San 1.5% 
Fractions’ 0°-200° Gr . sc... ons oe dae os ate 0.0% 
Fractions 200°-210" GC. 2... 6 pew se a a ele oe 2.0% 
Fractions 210°-235° C.... ... . «ss © mu mce sun © sn oleae 25% 
Fractions 285°—815° ©, 5. case ©» © «rere cue om Ot ogee ean 39 % 
Fractions $15°-855° CG, cc cs es ue ae te te Oe 20% 
Residue? «2 os cc cesies ccs cc eee e6 + «.mas = 0.0 5)a nie Soft 


The piles were steamed twelve to fourteen hours at 35 pounds pressure, a 
vacuum of 27 inches was maintained for three hours, and the creosote pres- 
sure of 175 pounds was maintained for from four to six hours. 

In 1919 a slight attack by Limnoria was reported, and reports from an- 
other source in 1922 stated that the attack was heavy and that the structure 
could not be expected to last more than 2 or 3 years longer. 

In this structure the bracing, which received a 20-pound treatment was 
placed below low tide and the piles were somewhat damaged by rough 
handling, whereby the attack by the boring organisms was undoubtedly 
accelerated. 


| 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 139 


SOUTHERN RAILWAY, TURTLE RIVER DOCKS, BRUNSWICK, GA.—These 
docks were built in four sections. The first was built in 1909, using a 16 to 
18-pound treatment of high naphthalene creosote. The piles in this section 
were heavily attacked at the end of five years, and after ten years more 
were replaced and the others were in bad condition. 


The second section was built in January, 1909, but the piles were treated 
in October and November, 1907, and were exposed to the air during these 
13 or 14 months intervening between their treatment and the construction 
of the pier. The treatment was 16 pounds with creosote furnished by the 
Semet-Solvay Company with an analysis as follows: 


eT EC ee cy ens es Nee cee s eee eae Bees 1.06 
SEI 2) C),  ic ec es ost ce cess ees eceseacess 1% 
Mumm 10) ck cc ce et eke eee nceucsces 4% 
Mer ey Ge ce cc ct wa eae eee Sc ecceeeebes 24% 
MIA LD Ol. ee eck case cee vecececdseaceuet 37% 
PE NMRIRMUM ek mee cd ce an ceceececascaees 34% 


Attack was heavy at the end of three years, many piles were replaced by 
the end of five years, and all were useless in less than ten years. It is prob- 
able that the exposure of these piles before they were driven had something 
to do with their short life. 

The third section, containing 930 piles, was constructed in 1909 with 
longleaf pine piles treated only a short time before they were used. The 
treatment consisted of twelve hours steaming at 40 pounds, four hours 
vacuum of 22 inches, and about four hours creosote pressure of 120 pounds. 
Sixteen pounds of English creosote were injected. 

After three years’ service there was a light attack by borers, after five 
years, a medium, and after ten years, a heavy attack. 

A number of similar piles were treated at the same time and used at 
Pinners Point, Va., and in both cases the two-inch to three-inch sap ring 
was thoroughly treated. In 1922 the Pinners Point piles had all practically 
reached the end of their life. Four specimens cut from this group of piles 
were analyzed by the Forest Service in September, 1909, with results shown. 
(page 131). 

Another group of 683 piles with similar creosote and treatment were 
driven in 1911-1912, which, after three years, showed no attack, and after 
eight years, medium attack. 

In 1918 a group of 20 very carefully selected piles was treated with 18 
pounds of mixed English and Barrett creosote by the following method: 
steam at 30 pounds for ten hours, 26-inch vacuum for three hours, and creo- 
sote at 160 pounds and 160 deg. Fahr. for four hours. These piles were 
handled and driven with extreme care to prevent damage, and in 1923 a 
few of them showed a slight attack by Limnoria. 

With very few exceptions the character of the creosotes used in the orig- 
inal impregnation of most of these older piles is unfortunately unknown. It 
is therefore possible to draw only very general conclusions from the exam- 
ination of extracted creosotes. The older piles were almost universally 
treated with what are known as high naphthalene creosotes, meaning there- 
by creosotes having 40 per cent or more of the 210 deg.-235 deg. C. fraction. 
This was particularly true of the piles treated with what were then known 
as English creosotes. In all probability the San Francisco piles, the Galves- 


140 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


ton piles, and the Norfolk piles referred to above were treated with these 
types of creosotes. Attention is called, however, to the fact that some of 
the San Francisco piles were treated with creosotes having a lower naphtha- 
lene content (explained by the fact that in the original treatment the liquid 
portions of the creosotes only were used). Note also in this connection the 
analyses of creosote extracted from Long Wharf, Oakland, Cal., piles Nos. 
1 and 37 (probably low naphthalene creosote) and piles Nos. 4 and 23 (prob- 
ably high naphthalene creosote). The creosote which ran from the cavity 
in pile No. 1, Dock A, seems to confirm the idea that the creosote with which 
piles Nos. 1 and 37 were treated was of low naphthalene content. Bateman 
(Forest Service Circular No. 199) cites two piles, one well preserved, 
treated with high naphthalene content creosote, and another not so well 
preserved, treated with a low naphthalene creosote. 

In recent years many piles have been treated with heavier creosotes of 
low naphthalene content, and there has been much discussion as to whether 
low or high naphthalene creosotes give the greater efficiency. Service rec- 
ords of piles treated with these two types of creosotes are most conflicting. 
The percentage of good piles in the Norfolk district treated with high 
naphthalene creosotes is very high. This is also so in the case of many of 
the Gulf coast piles. On the other hand the low naphthalene creosote piles 
Nos. 1 and 37 in San Francisco Bay were perfectly sound, while the high 
naphthalene creosote piles Nos. 4 and 23 had been attacked by Limnoria. 

In spite of numerous analyses and attempts to deduce conclusions there- 
from it is still an open question as to whether naphthalene is one of the 
essential constituents or not. What has been said for naphthalene applies 
with even more force to other constituents of creosote. Realizing the neces- 
sity for obtaining more definite information as to the influence of the vari- 
ous constituents of creosote, experiments were initiated in 1911, by the 
Forest Products Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, with various 
fractions of creosote to determine which of them contained the necessary 
protective elements. For the purpose of this study creosote was divided 
into five fractions as follows: 


I. Light creosotes distilling up to 205 deg. C. (401 deg. Fahr.). 


II. Naphthalene solids distilling between 205 deg. C. and 250 deg. C. 
(401 deg. Fahr. to 482 deg. Fahr.). 


III. Dead or golden oil distilling between 250 deg. C. and 295 deg. C. 
(482 deg. Fahr. to 562 deg. Fahr.). 


IV. Anthracene solids distilling between 295 deg. C. and 320 deg. C. 
(560 deg. Fahr. to 608 deg. Fahr.). 


V. Residue above 320 deg. C. (608 deg. Fahr.). 


A number of pieces of timber were treated with each of these fractions 
and immersed in various harbors where borers were known to be active, 
with the results shown in the table on pages 142, 148. 

It is evident that Fractions 1 and 2 are less efficient than the higher boil- 
ing fractions, and that the higher absorptions give better protection than 
the lower, but none of the fractions was more efficient than the creosote 
containing all of them. 

Other series of experiments were started in 1914 with water gas tar 
creosote, copperized coal tar creosote, creosote with ferric chloride, zinc 
chloride and crude oil and copperized crude oil. All the specimens were de- 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 141 


stroyed before the 1923 inspection, except the creosote copper and ferric 
chloride mixtures, both of which had been attacked. 

In 1915 a series of test pieces were placed at Pensacola, Fla., and Gulf- 
port, Miss., with the following results up to the 1923 inspection: 


ABSORPTION LBS. 
TREATMENT PER CU. FT. RESULT 


75% creosote, 25% naphthalene... 4.64 to 15.25 2 destroyed, 1 lost, 4 
attacked, 1 sound. 


50% creosote, 50% naphthalene... 6.73 to 17.02 4, destroyed, 2 lost, 
2 sound. 


75% creosote, 25% by-product tar 17.47 to 11.52 1 destroyed, 2 lost, 4 
attacked, 1 sound. 


50% creosote, 50% tar............ 7.56 to 11.62 6 lost, of which 8 
showed attack on 
previous  inspec- 
tions; 1 attacked, 
1 sound. 


Another series of tests was commenced in 1916 in which the impregnat- 
ing fluids were creosote and crude oil with various additions. The test 
pieces were 2 inches x 2 inches x 18 inches, mostly sapwood which had a 
high rate of absorption and probably a correspondingly high rate of 
leaching. 

The impregnation was from 5.2 pounds to 37.9 pounds per cubic foot, and 
all but one specimen have been attacked and two were destroyed in 41 
months. 

Specimens treated with from 15.9 pounds to 40.2 pounds water gas tar 
also had one unattacked test piece with one destroyed in 82 months, one 
heavily attacked in 56 months and then lost, and the others all attacked. 

Specimens treated with crude oil from 26.2 pounds to 33.0 pounds were all 
destroyed in 41 months. 

The test pieces treated with creosote and water gas tar with the addition 
of 1 per cent copper in the form of copper oleate showed very slight im- 
provement over those which did not contain the copper, but the same addi- 
tion to crude oil extended the life of two of the five test pieces one year. 

Several other series were included in the 1916 tests in which various mix- 
tures were used, but no conclusive results have yet been obtained except that 
the addition of crude oil to creosote or tar shortens the life of the timber 
about in the proportion of the amount of oil added to the creosote. 

In 1918 test series were impregnated with creosotes of varying composi- 
tions, but there is not enough evidence as yet on which to base a conclusion. 

The Forest Products Laboratory also initiated a series of tests of the 
different fractions of creosote on the Pacific Coast in 1911 similar to those 
on the Gulf. The test pieces were immersed in San Diego and San Francisco 
Bays, and while the tests are not conclusive they appear to confirm the re- 
sults of the Gulf Coast tests, i.e., that when used alone the higher boiling 
fractions are more effective than those with the lower boiling points. 

The Forest Products Laboratory tests just referred to used the individual 
fractions by themselves. Realizing that creosotes with the individual frac- 
tions removed might give different results, another set of experiments was 
initiated in 1921 by the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee (see 

Proceedings American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1922, page 394) in 


AGAINST BORERS 


PROTECTION 


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BS : x is ZI6T “Yoel ‘SSTTAL ‘Q40dymn x) outd Jeo[suo'] 0¢ ‘OT 184 [BOD LOT 
Ya es x ZI6L ‘YB ‘Bq ‘Bjooesueg suid yeo[su0'T 09°6 TOT 
kde oe xX ZI6T ‘YoIeW ‘B[q “ejooesueg ould jeo[suo] 08°8 cOl 
TZ6T “AON ened SI6I “Youvyy "ssTJT ‘aodyine) suid jyea[suo'T OV'L£ 90T 
tate eed” ee xX SI6L “YuBW “SSTJY ‘Q1odyn4) auld Jeo[suorT 09°F 80T 
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irae ae 2 xX Il6l “usr "BLT “Bjoowsueg auld A][O[qo'T 88° 9T cE 
ter, a x ae TI6T ‘usr ‘B[q “Boowsued suid AT[o[qo'] 06° FT LST 
ee a ee ».¢ TI6T ‘“‘uer ‘BL J ‘ejooesueg utd AT[o[qo’| TL IT 2} 08098L)) FE 
AE fos bale : ea x SIGT ‘YOrIBIN "SSI “aodymny ould jeopsu0'T Og TT c9l 
chal ees eRatene ani 5 case xX ZIGL ‘YOIVIN "SSI. ‘Jaodyny auld Jeo[suo'T 02 °6 ¢ €9I 
1Z6T ‘AON a ae ‘ ZIGT ‘YolvyN "SST. ‘qaodyyny ould jeo[suo'T 09°8 T9T 
ie je 4 mo ; II6l ‘use "BLT ‘Bjooesueg utd ATOTqO'T ce°L mOTPOBIY 9€ 
eer cot x see ZIGL ‘YOIVIN "el q ‘ejooesueg auld jeo[suo'T 00°2 6ST 
TZ6L “AON se ee ZIG ‘YoIVyN “el q ‘“eloovsued auld jJeo[suoT 06°9 O9T 
age h Re Kept x at ZIGL ‘WoreTA "SST ‘Quodyny autd jeo[suo'[ OF'9 rot 
LI6T §=“"99a at e- ZT6T ‘Youvyy ‘Bl ‘ejooesueg surd jeo[suo'T OFS 8ST 
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. ie ca . ous) oat o- TI61 “usr "BLT ‘e[ooesueg autd ATIOTGO'T 1Z bik CZ 
nto oti \eitee celta cere xX a. TI6L “uer CLT ‘ejooesuog euid ATTOTGO'T 86°91 1Z 
2 Eughe sag ea Xx Pi es TIGL ‘YOIBIN “SSTTA, ‘Q40dy[n4y ould jeo[suo'T 00°91 94O0SO091—) OTT 
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Oc6T ‘Aine neo <a B SI6L Ye “SST. “4odymr) suid jea[suo'T 0€ ST ¥ OTT 
=. abe x soe ae ZI6T ‘qoreyy ‘B[q “Bjooesueg suid jeo[suo'T OL'6 LANs 
5 aes : xX OE Neg x TIGL ‘WoIVyy “elq ‘Blooesueg ould Jeo[suo'T 02'S UOTPOBVL Il 
a) 4: says’ ow settee ote. ones . ZIBL ‘Torey *SSTINT ‘yaodyjnx eutd yeo[su0'T 0z°9 II 
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6161 ““sny ae sae - SI6L “Yoreyy ‘Bly “Bjooesueg ould jeo[suo'y i 60T 


eee ee ee ee ee ee es en ee eee ee ee ee eee Be 


144 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


which creosote was used to which various fractions had been added; in other 
words, the creosotes were reinforced. The test materials were treated with 
creosotes as follows: 


Schedule 1. The experimental test timbers are of rather large size, de- 
signed for exposure in Bay waters under as nearly service conditions as 
possible. Five, and in some cases six, pieces were subjected to the same 
treatment, one each for four different stations in the Bay, with one or two 
for laboratory use. There were sixteen different treatments, which were 
synthesized according to the following table: 


1. Fraction A (210°-235° C.) 9. Whole creosote + fraction D. 

2. Fraction B (285°-815° C.) 10. Whole creosote — fraction A. 

3. Fraction C (315°-855° C.) 11. Whole creosote — fraction B. 

4, Fraction D (Residue above 12. Whole creosote — fraction C. 
355° C.) 13. Whole creosote — fraction D. 

5. Whole creosote. 14. Whole creosote — tar acids. 

6. Whole creosote + fraction A. 15. Fraction D (repeated). 

7. Whole creosote + fraction B. 16. Oil tar distillate. 

8. Whole creosote + fraction C. 


These creosotes were synthesized so that the several fractions were added 
or subtracted in the proportions in which they occurred in the whole creo- 
sote, which were the following: 


Fraction 210° G.—235°.G —. 4 06 66 40 ate oe eres nate ne a 10% 
Fraction 235° C——316°:C. 20... fae ee 40 % 
Fraction 815° C.—355° C.. .... wee os 3 a ae nie ee 23% 
Residue above 355% Coo. iwcs 5 wolele « ose Se ole ce ee 27% 


In view of the difficulties incident to obtaining clear-cut separations by 
fractional distillation, and consequently to obtaining clearly marked differ- 
ences in inhibitive or destructive effects upon living organisms, it was felt 
that the doubling of effect gained by both adding and subtracting the re- 
quired fraction in each case to the whole creosote might so increase the 
decisiveness of this general method as to make it yield useful results. A 
piece of untreated wood was attached as a bait to each of those treated and 
a set of eight specimens so prepared was placed in a rack. Racks containing 
test pieces of each of the sixteen different treatments are now in place at 
the following stations in the Bay: San Francisco Pier No. 7, Southern 
Pacific Oakland Pier, Mare Island, and Crockett. An analysis of the creo- 
sote from each of the runs has been made, as well as of that extracted from 
one of the test pieces after treatment. Similar extractions will be made of 
the creosote of each of the test pieces, as they are removed from time to 
time. 

During 1922 under the auspices of this Committee and in cooperation 
with the Barrett Company, a number of pieces of pine and Douglas fir were 
treated with creosote prepared so as to give creosotes from which various 
fractions had been removed. The underlying idea of these experiments was 
to determine if possible whether the absence of one or the other of the frac- 
tions would show greater marine borer attack from which conclusions might 
be drawn as to the efficiency of one or the other fraction. The details of 
these particular tests were as follows: 


The work covered by this report had for its principal purpose the prep- 
aration of a series of creosotes from two distinct types of tar and the 
impregnation of yellow pine and Douglas fir sticks with these creosotes for 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 145 


later immersion in San Francisco Bay with the object of learning the 
relative resistance of the creosotes to the attack of the Teredo. 


PREPARATION OF OILS 


Two tars were used— 
Vertical Retort Tar 
Coke Oven Tar 


The former was selected as representing a high acid, low naphthalene 
tar, and the latter as a relatively low acid, high naphthalene tar. 

One hundred gallons of each were distilled by straight distillation to 
approximately 300° F. melting point pitch in the experimental plant still. 

From the total distillate obtained from each tar, eight (8) different types 
of creosote were obtained and designated as follows: the letters C and V 
respectively indicating Coke Oven Tar and Vertical Retort Tar. 


TABLE 1 
Coke Oven Tar Distillate Vertical Retort Tar Distillate 
Vol. Treat- slim Ol: Treat- 

Stick | Creosote | Stick ment Stick | Creosote | Stick ment 
No Used | (cu. ft.) | (Lbs. cu. No. Used | (cu. ft.) |(Lbs. cu.) 

ft.) ft.) 

PINE 
P-1 On156: (11.9 P-9 0.180 | 12.4 
P-17 oR Q. 221 1223 P-25 Vel 0.205 tpoe 
Pp-2 0.193 15.0 P-10 0.161 14.1 
P-18 C.S.R 0.187 14.5 P-26 V.S.R 0.240 13.2 
P-3 Orso). 14:3 P-11 OPTS 2a hae 
P-19 | C.A.R 0.190 | 13.5 P27 eV ACR On 232° 2a2 
p-4 Wetos |= 13.7 P-12 O51685) 1356 
P-20 C.B.R 0.244 1227 P-28 Veben 0.197 13.5 
P-5 0.199 |} 12.8 P-13 0.206 | 16.5 
P-21 | C.C.I 02212 | 12.4 Pe20 Sav Co 0.2274) 1acl 
P-6 0.159 | 13.3 P-14 C2166" | el 2ee 
P22" 17C.C.I1 Oreo 12.3 P230) V5.1. 0.240 | 313.8 
P-7 Ontos |. 13/3 P-15 OGLT I ae oo) 
Pao, )-C-.C.III Heo.) 12.7 P-31 Vitel 0.180 | -15:0 
P-8 0.140 14.4 P-16 0.177 157.5 
P-24 | C.C.IV 0.200 | 14.4 P-32 | V.C.IV 0.200 | 15.5 
FIR 

F-1 CLR: 0.208 | 15.0 F-9 Vite 0.240} 14.3 
F-2 C.S.R. elon.) Loo F-10 | V.S.R. 0.174 | 14.9 
F-3 C.A.R. 253 1012.3 Bell wives. 0.134 | 16.6 
F-4 GDRs 0.151 16.3 HeIZA eV A. 0.215 |--12.6 
F-5 C.O.1; 022362 15.8 Helait eViGels O:1437| 13 4 
F-6 CGI. 0.161 | 16.3 F-14 | V.C.II. Os20neal2e7 
F-7 CAT, | 0.214 | 19.9 Fal5a-VeGeLlie) ¢- Onl Ss yl 1 
F-8 Gly, 1 0:156.).. 17.2 F-16 | V.C.IV 0.168 | 16.3 


146 


PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


. ORIGINAL OR RAW CREOSOTE.—Designated C (or V)-R. This was a 


sample of the total distillate from the experimental plant still. 


. CREOSOTE—SOLIDS REMOVED.—Designated C (or V)-S.R.—Prepared from 


1 by cooling in ice-box to about 10° C. for three days and then removing 
solids by whizzing. 


. CREOSOTE—ACIDS REMOVED.—Designated C (or V)-A. R.—Prepared from 


1 by treating with 10-15% NaOH solution until tar acids were completely 
removed. The creosote was then washed free of alkali with water and 
salt solution. 


. CREOSOTE—BASES REMOVED.—Designated C (or V)-B. R.—Prepared from 


1 by treating with 20% H.SO. until tar bases were completely removed. 
The creosote was then washed with water and finally treated with CaCO, 
to neutralize any free H.SO,; remaining. 7 


5-8. COMPOSITE CREOSOTES.—Designated C (or V) C-I, IJ, ete.—These were. 


prepared from 1 by fractionating in 5-gallon laboratory stills using a 
Hempel tube about 3 inches high filled with beads. All distillate having a 
specific gravity below 1.000 was discarded except in the case of the 
Vertical Retort Tar creosote, where all distilling below 200° C. vapor 
temperature was discarded. The following fractions were taken: 


Fraction 1, Sp. Gr. 1.000—230° C. vapor temperature. 
Fraction 2—230° C.—-270° C. vapor temperature. 
Fraction 8—270° C.—3860° C. vapor temperature. 
Fraction 4—Residue above 360° C. 


Four composites were then prepared, from each of which one fraction 


was omitted and the other three combined in the relative proportions to one 
another in which they existed in the original oil. The designation and com- 
position of each of these composites was as follows: 


COMPOSITE NO. DESIGNATION FRACTIONS 
1 C (or V) C-1 5 We Pee 
Zs C (or V) C-II 1,3, 4 
3 C (or V) C-ITl aR OEE 
4 C (or V) C-IV 1, 2,4 


The following tabulation gives the results of the distillations of the two 


tars and the relative proportions of the four fractions in the original creo- 
sote. 


Tests of all the above described creosotes are given in Table 2. 


TAR VERTICAL RETORT COKE OVEN 

Per cent’ oi] s(0vevol.) cc. s ee eee 59.0 47.6 
To pitch) (mipte F.) . oe a ee 296 276 

Fraction No,. 1--(200%-230 0, ) =o oc eee 16.9 19.0 
Fraction’ No, 2 (2807-2707 C.)).. .. eens 29.1 22.5 
Fraction’ No. 3..(210*—360 = ©), 3: soe ee 47.3 44.1 
Fraction: No. 4° (Residue). :5.5.20 eee 6.7 14.4 
Per cent tar acids in total distillate........ | eee fey 
Per cent tar bases in total distillate ........ 4.7 5.6 
Per cent naphthalene in total distillate..... 0.0 8.2 
Per cent dry solids at 6° C. total distillate. . Tel 4.3 


*Sp. Gr. 1.000 in case of coke oven tar. 


TIMBER.—Two-foot lengths of well-seasoned yellow pine and Douglas fir 


posts, approximately 4 inches in diameter, were submitted by Dr. Her- 
mann von Schrenk. In the case of the yellow pine there were 32 sticks, 
which provided for the treatment of 2 with each creosote. Of the Douglas 
fir, there were 16 sticks, or one for each creosote. 


147 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 


ei O10'T O28 10 Ces) eSr hc. OP 0 Calder Oona 690 a ATO'A [FOI ‘ORIG AT dur0D “aoxoy [BOTVI0 A 
180°T 1Z0'T [APS 1.6 00Mm0RISs. 6°81 EO 0 0 | s90°T TITO'A |F-8-S “OTT TIT “Aar0D “qaozoy_ [Bo1}10 A 
r80'1 920° T TPS ic SCok GO Leelee. Tl 4G °c. cl rat Ce s8O0 VE ITO'A | FET “OVA TT “Auro0D y1090xy [eory49 A 
620°T 020° T P 20.102 GO) seeGpey lanl eer Berk 0 | SOT TOA | G-O-T “OV [ “duo y1oyoy_ [BOI}10 A 
LL0°1 Z10'T 6 O80 P69 lee [yl S SUS, ct OP ele Om gc0 7 MEO poaoulal soseg ‘410}9Y [BOT}I0 A 
690°T O10'T L089 $70. 429 OC PRs eT TL AF Ciiecry t AT Vee aie PeAOWAL SPIOV “}10}0Y_ [BOT}10 A 
CL0°T CTO'T Gc GSI CES ZL YL S. |. cae ee 6F0'T ‘USA | ''' | peaouted sprpog “410}0Y [BOTA 
690'T F10'T O98) 2 25.\92 07 Per Ol 4 Oe aC ee et 090 Lf “TAC Gh 2 on aa [BUISTIO 410}OY [BOT}IOA 
cara FeO T Tore ruen “09 CPP 39. “Seiad Sor bL0°T AV'O'O [F-U-T OTT AT “Au0D ‘eT, W2AQ 940D 
SOIT e60°T 8° GL lev £o | o.cZ ish. Z 0 0 0 | 660°T IIT'O'O [F-E-% ‘ovrg TIT “dup ‘rey, wag exo 
ZIT St0'T O Cla GGatec he ih S 4060 erie 0 ¢10°T IVO'O | FEe-T oer TT “dur0H “wy wad ex0HD 
LOTT CFO T 2967158 Oat Ob (21s 1S ee siesee 0 OL0°T : TO'O | 'S-S-1 ‘ovr J ‘duroD ‘1 J, weaQ exo 
Z80°T et0'T 108 | ¢'FS | 298] FSI] HT | 10 0 | 280°T ‘Wao | | peaouer sasvg ‘BJ, WAC eY0H 
860'T L¥0°T LOS SE OG | teare ied | O° St Gee lat Ot Bees0aL WVO |) peaourer sproy “ivy, UeAO ex0D 
660° T FF0'T Z LE | S995) Bib (6°91. 9S Ae S § SL aP80"T isa me poaoulad SpIOY ‘BT, WA eH) 
FOL 'T OF0'T Z'08 | O'9S | 1°88] 6 FT] FS | 60 0 | 980°T a 2a Oe [PUB Te], VAG e409 
Sede eRe CT ik - eon een ies ce 
"OD oGG8-STe | ‘O SIS-S&z 
coe | 2078 2 Giz) 1.-Gee -|f OTS.) 100E. FeOLT 
O 0G ST/88 | ‘O 0G ST/8E "19 ‘dg eal 3 i 


"HQ “dg “1 dg 
“Jo 04% THIOL —UOVRTMSIC, 340904 


% WAV, 


148 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


IMPREGNATION.—It was originally contemplated to treat both types of 
wood by the full cell process, but preliminary experiments indicated that 
this would result in a heavier and less uniform treatment than desired— 
12 to 15 pounds—when applied to the pine. Pine was, therefore, treated 
by the Rueping process, and the fir, which was much denser and closer 
grained, was treated by the full cell process. The general methods pur- 
sued were as follows, with slight variations to accomplish the desired treat- 
ment: 


RUEPING PRocESS.—Stick was placed in large cylinder and flange bolted 
on. Pressure of 25 pounds applied. Creosote heated to 170°-190° F., poured 
into small cylinder and put under 75 pounds pressure. Creosote then 
allowed to run in on wood and pressure raised in 25-pound increments until 
desired treatment was obtained. The final pressure varied from 100 pounds 
to 175 pounds. Creosote was then drained off and vacuum applied for a 
few minutes to dry the stick. 


FULL CELL PRocEss.—After placing stick in large cylinder, the flange 
was bolted on and a vacuum of 25 inches to 27 inches (mercury) applied. 
Creosote at 170°-190° F. was then admitted from upper cylinder and a 
pressure of 75 pounds applied to the system. This was gradually raised 
until the desired treatment was obtained. The final pressure varied from 
100 pounds to 175 pounds. Creosote was then drained off and vacuum 
applied for a few minutes to dry the stick. 

All sticks were carefully calipered for the determination of their volume, 
and weighed before and after treatment for determination of the amount 
of creosote put in. 


On account of the rather coarse graduations of the gauge, they could not 
be wholly relied upon for a determination of the amount of the treatment, 
and in most cases this was determined by drawing off the creosote, weighing 
it, and returning it to the cylinder for a continuation of the treatment if 
a sufficient amount had not been taken up. Several of the fir sticks were 
given a heavier treatment than desired, and the application of a sustained 
vacuum failed to draw out the excess creosote. 


The creosote used and the weight of treatment for each stick are given 
in table 1. 


The time which has elapsed since the tests were started is too short to 
expect results from any of the methods of protection having any consider- 
able value. All test pieces are reported by the San Francisco Committee 
not to have been attacked except as indicated in the table on page 149. 


In view of the long service which some of the San Francisco Bay piles 
had given and in order to determine whether local conditions, or whether 
the type of creosote in these piles had been responsible for their long service, 
a number of sound piles taken from the Oakland Wharf of the Southern 
Pacific Company were redriven. 


There were seven test piles driven in wharf No. 63 of the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad at San Diego, Cal., in 1919; four of these 
were from the Long Wharf treated in 1890, two were treated with a dis- 
tillate creosote in 1919, and one was untreated. All of the old piles had 
been attacked by Limnoria by the end of 1922 to a depth of from 1% inch to 
14 inch. 

A similar series of test piles was placed by the Northwestern Pacific Rail- 
way in their wharf at Tiburon, Cal., in 1919. None of them had been at- 
tacked after three years’ exposure. 

The Southern Pacific Railway drove similar piles at San Pedro in 1919, 
and also drove 12 piles treated in 1897 as brace piles in their wharf No. 2 
at Oakland, Cal., in October, 1919. None of them had been attacked after 
three years’ exposure. 


INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 149 


DATE OF DATE OF 
PRESERVATIVE IMMERSION INSPECTION CONDITION 


Williams and Francois 
oil, Arent Laboratory. Jan. 19, 1922 Sept. 4,1923 Attacked by Limnoria 


Aczol-Zinsser Co....... Jan. 19, 1922 Sept. 4, 1923 Attacked by Limnoria 


Benzol and antimony tri- 
chloride, Arent Lab- 
MEALOPY GAN Gc se Jan. 19, 1922 Sept. 4, 1923 Heavy attack by Limnoria 


Antimony trichloride ...Nov. 18, 1921 Aug. 11, 1922 Light attack by Limnoria 
Antimony trichloride ... Nov. 18, 1921 Sept. 4, 1923 Heavy attack by Limnoria 
re Dec. 12, 1922 Sept. 4, 1928 Attacked by Limnoria 


Dr. Bartsch’s patent par- 
affine and copper 
i ean a rr Dec. 12, 1922 Sept. 4, 19238 Attacked by Limnoria 


Cooper - Case - Anderson 
Co., Elaterite, 1 dip..Jan. 5, 1928 Sept. 4, 1923 Attacked by Limnoria 


Elaterite, 2 dips..... Jan. 5, 1923 Sept. 4, 1923 Heavy attack by Limnoria 


RICGTWOOU oe. a ss Jan. 5, 1928 Sept. 4,1923 Bark mostly gone. Scat- 
tered Limnoria attack 


San Francisco Committee 
Special Tests 


WUMBORIC le ec ek. kw s Dec., 1922 Sept. 4, 1923 Attacked by Limnoria 
PRRUIINONY Alec cece eo ss Dec., 1922 Sept. 4, 1923 Attacked by Limnoria 
BI RTTAUIEIYS Spee a as se +6 Dec., 1922 Sept. 4, 1923 Attacked by Limnoria 
OPO U ie are vic cc so ss Dec., 1922 Sept. 18,1923 Attacked by Limnoria 


The Northern Pacific installed a test series in their Pier No. 1 at Seattle, 
Wash., in March, 1920. This series contained three piles from the Long 
Wharf treated in 1890 and one treated in 1901; two Southern Pacific piles 
treated with 14 pounds of creosote in August, 1919; one treated by boiling 
under vacuum and impregnating with 14 pounds of creosote by the Pacific 
Creosoting Company; one treated by the steaming process and impregnated 
with 16 pounds of creosote by the Coleman Creosoting Company in March, 
1919, and one untreated pile. In October, 1920, an inspection showed that 
the untreated pile had been attacked by Bankia and that the treated piles 
were still intact. 

Six sections 24 inches long, cut from three unattacked piles treated 1n 
1890, were installed by the Forest Service at Pensacola, Fla. Three sections 
were cut from the mud line and three from the water. The ends of the 
specimens were protected by zinc or copper sheathing and they were placed 
in the water in August, 1919. These specimens showed no attack after one 
year’s immersion, but in January, 1924, all of them had been attacked by 
Limnoria and were penetrated to depths varying from 14 to % inch. 


Conclusions—A study of many creosoted piles which have been attacked 
by shipworms and Limnoria lignorum shows that there are many piles with 
unequal penetration, and that the attack begins at the points where the 
penetration is the least. This emphasizes the necessity of securing uniform 
penetration around the entire periphery of each pile. 

It is also very clear that many piles fail on account of physical damage 
which allows the boring organisms to obtain access to the untreated center 


150 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 


of the pile on account of damage to the treated shell of the pile before or 
after driving. It is generally impossible to prevent abrasion of the surface 
after the pile is driven, but damage in handling before driving can and must 
be avoided if the maximum life is to be obtained. 


The portion of a pile which in the finished structure will be between the 
mud line and high water, should not be touched with a pike pole, no dogs 
should be driven, boom men should not be permitted to walk on the pile with 
caulked shoes, the pile should not be picked up with chains which will crush 
the fiber of the wood, nor should the surface be damaged in any other way. 
It should go without saying that no framing should be done below high 
water. 


Both shipworms and Limnoria lignorum will seek out and attack through 
the smallest defects, and after the shipworms have become established and 
their development has proceeded beyond the larval stage, they seem to work 
only little less freely in creosoted than in uncreosoted timber. Even at a 
considerable increase in construction cost it is well worth while to see that 
creosoted piles are so handled that they will not be damaged. 

As has been pointed out in several instances above, while coal tar creosote 
has been used in the treatment of piling for a great many years, it is still 
unknown exactly what specific qualities in the creosote are essential to give 
the longest service to creosoted piles. Early pile treatment in the United 
States was carried out with creosotes having high naphthalene contents, 
(such as the Norfolk piles above referred to and one of the San Francisco 
pile series). Treatment during the last 15 or 20 years has been conducted 
with heavier creosotes with lower naphthalene contents. When used by 
themselves the various fractions of creosote show marked differences. As 
pointed out in connection with the Forest Service experiments, the higher 
boiling or heavier fractions of the creosote seem to have the greater pro- 
tective efficiency. To what extent this may be true when these fractions are 
present in actual creosotes is still doubtful, because as indicated in the Nor- 
folk piles a very long service was obtained with creosote containing high 
percentages of low boiling fractions. Many of the analyses of creosote ex- 
tracted from old piles, while interesting, afford very little evidence one way 
or the other, because so little is known of the nature of the creosotes used in 
such cases when the piles were first treated. It should also be remembered 
that success or failure may not always be due to the nature of the creosote, 
because as has already been shown, improper penetration, too little creosote 
per cubic foot, and variability in the timber, are probably as important 
factors as the quality of the creosote used. 

Taking all the evidence available the following recommendation will prob- © 
ably give efficient protection. Treat air dried piles wherever possible. Treat 
these with at least 18-30 pounds of creosote per cubic foot, depending on 
the width of the sap ring, and very refractory wood species treat with creo- 
sote to refusal. In the treatment use a pure distillate coal tar creosote con- 
forming to Specifications 1, 2 and 3 of the American Railway Engineering 
Association. 

If the creosote be of the best quality, if the impregnation be thorough, 
and the timber be not damaged by handling or framing, there appears to be 
no question but that creosote impregnation is the most efficient impregna- 
tion method of protection in use at present. 


. 
He 
~*~ 


CHAPTER VII 


SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER 


Timber for marine structures has many advantages not found in other 
materials, of which its wide distribution, comparatively light weight, ease 
of working and consequent low cost in place are of prime importance. When 
the results of the destructive effect of marine borers and fungi are taken 
into consideration and the high cost of replacing piles in heavy structures, 
where in addition to the actual cost of the work, the interference with 
traffic causes losses, the economy of the use of timber piles becomes less 
apparent, and if materials of longer life are available which at the same 
time can be used in salt water structures at reasonable first cost, their use 
may be fully justified. 

Timber can be protected from marine borers and from decay sufficiently 
to greatly increase its life, but the cost is considerable. The cost of con- 
struction with protected timber is somewhat higher than with unprotected, 
and with the increasing cost of timber on account of its growing scarcity, 
the economic necessity for the development of other types of construction 
becomes of great importance. In considering the permanency of harbor 
structures, the question of obsolescence must not be lost sight of, and so 
far as experience can predict care should be taken not to use a material, at 
high first cost, which will have a life much longer than is desired for the 
entire structure. | 


The most promising substitutes for timber for use in structures for 
which long life is desired are concrete and metal. Both deteriorate from 
causes not thoroughly understood and therefore this deterioration can 
neither be accurately predicted nor entirely prevented. Both materials re- 
quire much study, which can be carried on both in the field through con- 
struction and service records, and in the laboratory, the two methods being 
necessarily complementary. 


CONCRETE 


Concrete is generally considered the most promising substitute for tim- 
ber, although it does deteriorate. The deterioration of mass concrete in 
salt water may be caused by the chemical action of the sulphates of the 
water on the constituents of the concrete and by the mechanical action of 
water, ice or debris. Reinforced concrete is subject to attack by the same 
agencies, and in addition it may be destroyed by the corrosion of the re- 
inforcement and the disruption of the concrete by the consequent expansion 
of the products of corrosion. ! 

It seems certain that the rate of deterioration of concrete, all other fac- 
tors being the same, is in proportion to the permeability and porosity. Good 
concrete seldom deteriorates seriously below low water, and most of the at- 
tack on both plain and reinforced concrete occurs above low water. Reinforc- 
ing rods do not generally show serious corrosion in the portion of the struc- 
ture constantly immersed, but the corrosion and consequent spalling and 


151 


152 SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER Baas 


SERVICE RECORDS OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN FOREIGN WATERS 


Location Structure Date Built Construction Data Condition 
Newcastle, Eng....Breakwaters 1855-95 Air seasoned, granite Lime blocks in 
faced blocks, lime bad condition, 
Portland and Roman Portland some 
cement used good, some bad. 
Roman all good 
Chatham, Eng..... Dock walls 1870 1-12 gravel Considerable de- 
terioration 
Auckland, N. Z...Dry dock 1878 Mass concrete with Good in 1915 
binding medium ¥% 
cement ¥% volcanic 
scoria 
Dublin, Ireland....Poolbeg Light- 1880 140 ton air seasoned Good 
house blocks 
Newcastle, Eng....High Dock 1880 Mass concrete Disintegrated 
Colombo, Ceylon... Breakwater 1875-85 10-30 ton blocks air Good 
: seasoned 3 months 
Southampton, Eng.*North Pier 1878-83 Mass concrete Disintegrated 
Liverpool, Eng....Hornby Dock 1882 Mass concrete Good in 1914 
Peterhead, Eng....Breakwater 1886 Cyclopean mass con- Good 
crete blocks 1-6 mix- 
ture granite faced 
Scarborough, Eng..Sea wall, Royal 1886 Mass concrete Disintegrated 
Albert Drive 
Scarborough, Eng..Sea wall, Royal 1886 Blocks air seasoned Good 
Albert Drive 
Auckland, N. Z....Calliope Dry Dock 1886 Mass _ concrete with Good 
scoria 


Belfast, Ireland....Alexandra Dock 1885-89 


Gothenburg,Sweden.Masthuggett Quay 


Newcastle, Eng. 


River Tyne, Eng..{Graving Dock 
Southampton, Eng. Piers River Itchin 


..-smith’s Dock 


Ymuiden, Holland. .Groin 


Southampton, Eng. Piers 


Uddevala, Sweden.Platform 0.6 in. 


Liverpool, ‘Eng. 
Gravesend, Eng 


Gravesend, Eng 


Liverpool, Eng. 


Gravesend, Eng. 


Aden, Arabia... 


Island of Urk, 
Holland 


Halifax, N.S... 
Neweastle, Eng. 


thick 
... Princes Dock 


...Henley’s Jetty 


...-swanscombe Jetty 


..- Brocklebank Dock 


...- Thameshaven Jetty 


...lyne Dock 


Vleiland, Holland. .Seawall 


Fleetwood, Eng. 


... Fish Dock 


1888 
1889 


1892 
1899 
1903 


1902-05 
1905 
1905 
1905 


1906 


1907 
1907 


1907 
1907 


1907-14 
1908 


1909 


1909-11 


1-2-21% and 1-2-31% with 
facing 1-1-3 
Tremie concrete 


Mass Cyclopean Con- 
crete 


1-4 mix reinforced 
Reinforced 


Reinforced 1-4 mixture 


Poured under water 
1-4-6 mixture 


Piles reinforcing 114” 
cover 

Piles and Deck 1-2-4 
mixture 

Columns built of sea- 
soned blocks and re- 
inforced deck 

Piles 144” cover on rods 


Columns cast in water 
Lie mixture, Deck 


1144” cover on reinforcing 

1 cement—¥ trass, 3 
sand, 4% stone, mix- 
ture 

Mass concrete 1-3-3 mix 

Reinforced piles and 
deck 

0.20 m. x 0.12 m.-335 
piles 2 per cent rein- 
forcing — mixture, 1 
cement % trass, 3 


sand, 4% gravel 
Piles and deck 1%” 
cover 


Some <disintegra- 
tion 

Not good 

Disintegrated 


Bad 


_ Good 


Reinforcing cor- 
roded and con- 
crete soft 

Bad 

Some _ abrasion 


but generally 
good 


Slight deteriora- 
tion 
Deteriorated 


Columns good— 
dock deteri- 
orated 

Slight deteriora- 
tion 

Slight deteriora- 
tion in columns. 
Concrete soft 
in deck 


Good 
Good 


Bad 
Some rust streaks 


Good 


Piles good. Deck 
rusted 


* The disintegration of these walls as reported by G. E. B. Couleher in the 


CONCRETE 153 


splitting of the concrete takes place above low water and frequently above 
high water. Deterioration of well built reinforced concrete does not often 
indicate its presence by rust stains in much less than 10 years. 


Service records (page 152) based on inspections made since 1918, except 
as otherwise noted, have been obtained from the Reports of the Institution 
of Civil Engineers, 1920, 1921 and 1922, the papers presented before the 
International Navigation Congresses of 1908, 1912 and 1923, and other 
foreign sources. 

It is impracticable to give complete data of mixtures and methods of con- 
structions used, within the limits of this report, but these structures are 
described in detail in reports noted in the appended bibliography. 

Test blocks 0.20 m. x 0.20 m. x 1.0 m. made with the mixtures indicated 
below were placed at half tide at Ymuiden, Holland, in 1912; 


1% cement 1% trass 3 sand 5 gravel 
2 cement 1 trass 3 sand 6 gravel 
2 cement 2 trass 3 sand 7 gravel 


Reinforcing rods were placed 1 cm., 2 cm., and 10 cm. from the surface. In 
1914 after 2 years’ immersion there was no sign of disintegration, and in 
1922 there was no sign of chemical action on the concrete, but rust appeared 
over the rods with 1 cm. and 2 cm. cover. 

Records of structures built since 1911 have been omitted because it does 
not seem probable that much indication of probable service life can be ob- 
tained from structures under 10 years old. From a study of the table it 
will be seen that out of 30 structures reported, 17 show deterioration, and 


Proceedings Inst. C. E. 1918, Vol. CXCV, had extended to a depth of 3 or 4 feet 
after 30 to 35 years service. The interior of the walls was hard and specimens 
were analyzed from this hard concrete and from the disintegrated concrete on 
the original face. Specimen No. 1 was cut from the hard concrete in the center 
of the wall and No. 2 from the disintegrated concrete at the original face. 
Analyses were as follows: 


SPECIMEN NO.1 SPECIMEN NO. 2 


OD a AES oe 58.85% 18.80% 
Pepe eo) oe C05 cs is bid, Sherk ta ss a ais Wess 4.94% 23.89 % 
Perimurioe ADNYVOTICG. 5. ck sc cs 3.05% 12.95% 


+ This dock was found when it was put in service not to be watertight. In 1893 
signs of failure began to appear, and from that time on frequent repairs were 
made by cutting out soft concrete and replacing it. In 1909 it was found that 
the rings holding the heelposts of the gates had risen 3% inches on one side and 
25% inches on the other on account of the “growing” of the wall. The rings were 
reset, but in 1913 this operation had to be repeated, and again in 1916. The walls 
were originally 26 feet 3 inches high above sill; the depth of water at high water 
was 21 feet 3 inches with an extreme range of tides of 14 feet 6 inches. The total 
increase in the height of the west wall beween February, 1892, and September, 
1916, was 7% inches, and of the east wall 5% inches. Both walls were badly 
cracked and bulged, but the sill masonry built of the same materials and con- 
stantly immersed had not changed in any way. The valve chamber was in the 
west wall, and the water had better access to the center of the wall than was 
the case in the east wall, which fact probably accounts for the greater deteriora- 
tion of the west wall. 

The cement was carefully tested and was the best to be obtained at the time. The 
mixture in the dock walls was one part cement, 112 parts sand and 4% parts 
gravel, and in accordance with the standard practice of that time was mixed 
drier than is now considered desirable. It was well tamped. 


154 ~ SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER 


of the 13 in which deterioration is not reported 4 contained trass or other 
siliceous admixture, and one was built with granite faced blocks. 

The records of such American structures as have been secured, with as 
full a description of the methods and materials of construction as could be 
obtained, have been included in the reports on the various harbors in an- 
other section of this report. These reports include not only structures over 
10 years old but those of later date for which records of construction could 
be obtained, so that future investigators would have this information avail- 
able when studying their condition. 

A description of those structures will be found in the Rene on the 
following harbors: 


Maitie® Goast’ 2. 't 2, SOO 2 va oe 4 structures 


Portsmouth, N. H., to Provincetown, Mass. .... 2 structures 
Boston (Harbor “lg. kek poe eee 6 structures 
Buzzards and Narragansett Bays 7.22... .4 Ge 3 structures 
Long Island Sound, 2... .<. <2 ss eee 1 structure 
Norfolk Harbor 405... 3.00 see eee 9 structures 


Beaufort, N. C., Harbor & Cape Fear River 


. 1 series of structures 
Savannah’ & Brunswick v.02 0. 2 eee 1 structure 


East Coast of Florida ..... 02773...) 5.2 5 structures 
Key ‘West, Flay. coed 45 4%. Ee aa eee 10 structures 
Key West to Mississippi River .............. 2 structures 
San Diego vand LosAngeles+.22..5... Soon 6 structures 
pancl ranciscons 44. pee Summary of many structures 
Puget Sound occ pene cteskeenaeesk cea 7 structures 
Guantanamo, « Guba tir: 4s aeln ss we ee 1 structure 
Dominicans Rep. s.0% 475.22 Bee Se 4 structures 
Pearl’ Harbor," H.. to’ O05. oe eee 5 structures 
Tutiila. Samoa... « ascere.. 3. cee eee ae 2 structures 


Seventy-four structures are listed, of which 39 were reported to be in all 
stages of deterioration from slight to completely destroyed. Of the total 
number of structures listed, 24 have been built since 1915 and 3 of the older 
ones are built on cylinders encased in steel shells which are still in good con- 
dition. 

For various reasons it has been impossible to collect a complete record 
of concrete structures, but it is thought that those records obtained are 
fairly representative of existing structures. Structures exposed to unusual 
conditions such as those at coast resorts subject to the wave action of the 
open sea have not been included in the study, because the deterioration of 
such structures is frequently influenced by the use of designs which did not 
adequately provide for the heavy shocks to which such structures are ex- 
posed, and it seemed impossible to separate failures caused by improper 
design and those for which other causes were responsible. 

There are two characteristic types of failure of plain concrete, one a dis- 
integration apparently caused by the expansion within the concrete of a 
great number of small particles giving an explosive effect, and the other by 
the disintegration of the binding medium and its change into a slimy, semi- 
fluid substance. In the first class may be included the effect of the forma- 
tion of ice in porous concrete or the replacement of one chemical constituent 
by another occupying a greater volume. The effect on the concrete is simi- 


CONCRETE 155 


lar in either case. The action in the second class is caused by the replace- 
ment of a necessary cementing constituent by a soluble compound which 
has no cementing value. 

Generally the available evidence seems to indicate that the rapidity of 
chemical deterioration is roughly proportional to the permeability of the 
concrete but some structures built with lean mixtures and the consequently 
comparatively porous concrete are reported where the service has been sat- 
isfactory. Such concrete is subject to disintegration by ice in the colder 
latitudes, but the cases where it has a good service record in warmer waters 
seem to indicate clearly that some binding media resist chemical attack, 
even though the water have easy access to the interior of the mass. 

In concrete of maximum practicable density chemical disintegration is 
slow and mechanical destruction by ice expansion almost negligible. The 
results of the studies of the Structural Materials Laboratory of the Lewis 
Institute supported by the Portland Cement Association furnish extremely 
valuable information as to the proper methods of mixing and placing con- 
crete to secure maximum density. They have probably done more to show 
how to build resistant concrete with Portland cement than any work pre- 
viously recorded, but it does not seem that density alone can prevent dis- 
integration. Very little work leading to the development of a binding me- 
dium which will not disintegrate under the attack of UE: bearing water 
has been done in the United States. 

Roman cement has been proven very durable by centuries of use. This 
cement was a mixture of lime and pozzuolana, a volcanic product consisting 
principally of silica with the necessary chemical characteristics so that it 
would combine with the lime in such a way as to form a cement which was 
stable in sea water. The ancient masonry was not all successful, and al- 
though many of the structures built in the days of Imperial Rome in salt 
water are still standing, the writings of Vitruvius show that many failures 
occurred. 

After many experiments John Smeaton used a similar material for the 
cement in the Eddystone Lighthouse, which stood for over 100 years. But 
neither in the case of the Roman cement nor in that of Smeaton was the 
chemistry of the compound known. 

In France, Vicat began the study of cements for use in sea water early in 
the Nineteenth Century. His work continued about 40 years and was the 
first, and one of the most thorough scientific studies ever made. Vicat 
discovered that a cement which would resist the chemical attack of sea water 
must be so constituted that when it set the lime, released in the process of 
setting, would all be combined with silica and alumina. 

Many investigators on the continent of Europe followed Vicat, among 
whom were Le Chatlier, Candlot and Feret in France, Michaelis and Burk- 
hartz in Germany, van Kuffler in Holland, Poulsen in Denmark, Jeanneret 
in Switzerland, Luiggi in Italy, de Castro in Spain, and many others. In 
general the results of their laboratory and field studies corroborated those 
of Vicat and by the use of the microscope they were able to do their work 
more thoroughly than had Vicat. In the United States, Day, Wright, and 
Rankin at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- 
ington confirmed the results of European experimenters and developed the 
use of the petrographic microscope much further than had previously been 
done. They developed the binary and ternary systems and made possible 
the later work of Bates and others at the Bureau of Standards. 


156 SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER 


Practically all these investigators agree that the most active disintegrat- 
ing element in sea water is magnesium sulphate; that ordinary Portland 
cement after setting leaves a residue of from 15 per cent to 30 per cent of 
free lime; that the magnesium sulphate combines with the free lime in the 
concrete and frequently leaves a deposit of calcium sulphate crystals which 
occupy roughly 1.4 times the volume occupied by the lime, resulting in the 
explosive effect above mentioned. That if there be even a slight movement 
of the water in the body of the structure after the removal of the free lime 
the tricalcium silicate which is the most quickly formed product in the set- 
ting of the concrete is broken down, and that this process once commenced 
continues until the concrete is reduced to a disintegrated mass of sand and 
other aggregate. 

One method of preventing this disintegration is by adding to the cement 
a finely ground silica, having the necessary qualities, and in a proper quan- 
tity, such that, on setting, the silica and the lime will form compounds in- 
soluble in sulphate bearing waters. The silicious materials which have been 
used for this purpose are pozzuolana from Italy, Santorin earth from 
Greece, trass from Germany, tuff from California, all of volcanic origin; 
diatomaceous earth from Denmark, and some blast furnace slags. Ordinary 
silica sand or the product of disintegrated or ground granite does not gen- 
erally contain an appreciable quantlty of soluble silica which will combine 
with the lime, but some burnt clays do contain it and can therefore be used 
like pozzuolana. 


The addition of silica to Portland cement or to lime not only results in 
the formation of compounds little affected by the attack of sulphates, but is 
also of considerable value in making the concrete more impervious. This 
action is supposed to be caused by the colloidal properties of silica which 
close the pores of the concrete. The more impervious concrete obtained by 
the use of the silica admixture resists much better the disintegration caused 
by the formation of ice crystals within the concrete, than does the concrete 
in which silica is not used. In making this addition the amount of silica to 
be added should be slightly in excess of the amount of soluble silica re- 
quired to combine with the free lime released by the cement in pent and 
the two materials should be ground together. 


The use of the so-called “blended cements” (cements to which silica has 
been added) in salt water has been very general in all the Mediterranean 
countries, and excellent results have been obtained since the days of Rome. 
In Germany and other countries of northern Europe this material is recog- 
nized as the most suitable binding medium for salt water structures, and a 
cement made from Portland cement and diatomaceous earth is now being 
manufactured for this purpose by the Aalborg Company in Denmark. 

The Engineering Standards Committee in England in 1923 adopted a 
specification for a blast furnace slag cement which is being used for the 
same purpose. In the United States the only recorded use of a “blended 
cement” containing silica having the proper qualities was in the construc- 
tion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, where silica was used as an economy and 
not because of its ability to resist attack by sulphates. This work is in 
excellent condition, while concrete in the Elephant Butte and Arrowrock 
Dams of the Reclamation Service is not so good. In these two latter struc- 
tures ground granite was used for the silicious material, while in the for- 
mer volcanic tuff was used. 


CONCRETE 157 


The “blended cements” have generally given quite as high short time 
strength tests as the best Portlands, though the difference is not great. 
Mass concrete harbor structures do not as a rule need high strength, and 
concrete made of lime, soluble silica and proper aggregates, will generally 
have sufficient strength. In any case resistance to sulphate attack in such 
structures is of more importance than great strength. It is stated by some 
of the European engineers and investigators that the addition of the correct 
amount of soluble silica to Portland cement results in greater strength. It 
is seldom that these admixtures have been made under proper chemical 
control. 

Another binding mixture probably invented by Colonel Henry Spackman, 
who described it in 1910, and later developed in France principally by M. 
Jules Bied, which secures practically insoluble compounds, is known as 
“Alca cement,” “Ciment fondu,” or ‘‘Ciment electrique.” In this cement the 
cementing compounds are calcium aluminates instead of calcium silicates as 
in the case of Portland cements. The alumina and calcium are fused in a 
blast furnace or electric furnace instead of being clinkered in a kiln. The 
manufacture is more expensive than that of Portland, the cost at the present 
time (1923) being about three times as much in France as that of Portland. 

“Ciment fondu” has desirable qualities other than its ability to resist 
sulphate attack. It hardens very quickly and sets in about 5 hours. Its 
strength at the end of three days is equal to that of the best Portland at the 
end of 28 days, and increased strength is maintained so far as is shown by 
available tests covering a period of 8 years. The long time tests of this 
alumina cement do not show the decided fall in strength between the sixth 
and tenth years which is characteristic of Portland. 

This cement is not as yet available in the markets of the United States, 
except by importation, and it is probable that further study of its manu- 
facture will make it possible to reduce its cost and encourage its manufac- 
ture in the United States. On account of its resistance to sulphate bearing 
water, either sea water or the alkali water of the West, its use should make 
possible the construction of much more enduring structures than those built 
with Portland cement. On account of its quick hardening and high initial 
strength it is very useful for pavement and similar work, and its use in 
building work will make possible lighter sections and less form material. 

It is possible with the best Portland cement to build structures with a 
very considerable life, but a rich mixture must be used and the greatest 
precaution taken to secure maximum density by a very careful proportion- 
ing of materials, including gauging water. All these precautions add to 
the cost of construction, while a “blended cement” should be slightly cheaper 
than Portland, and such extreme and expensive precautions in proportion- 
ing and handling as is necessary with Portland cement should not be required 
with a binding medium which is not so readily attacked by sulphates. The 
uncertainties of the human equation on account of the use of ignorant labor 
and the difficulty of control will also be reduced. 

Both the “blended cement” and the “Ciment fondu” require study to 
determine the best mixtures and methods of handling, and since with 
“Ciment fondu” a considerable saving in the time of seasoning is possible, 
new specifications will have to be developed to take advantage of all pos- 
sibilities of the new material. Piles have been successfully driven in France 
three days after pouring, and specifications will have to be so drawn as to 
permit such economies. 


158 SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER 


Reinforced concrete, in addition to the deterioration of the concrete from 
chemical or mechanical causes, also suffers from the corrosion of the rein- 
forcing. The products of corrosion expand and cause spalling or splitting 
of the concrete, and this in turn accelerates the corrosion. This corrosion 
seldom shows below low water, and is generally most active at about high 
water, though the action is frequently rapid in the members of the deck of 
a wharf well above high water. 


The causes of this corrosion are not well understood, but there is little 
question that the construction of an impervious concrete will greatly retard 
if not entirely stop it. There seems to be little question that the minimum 
cover with Portland cement concrete over the reinforcing should not be less 
than two inches and many engineers think three inches still more desirable. 
In the case of piles, a 38-inch cover places the reinforcing so close to the 
neutral axis that the amount of reinforcing and consequently the cost of 
the piles and the difficulty of handling them will be increased. 


In order to render the concrete less pervious, structures have been painted 
with tar, pitch, or asphalt, and some good seems to have resulted, but such 
a coating requires renewal from time to time and adds to the cost of both 
construction and maintenance. Another method of protection for piles by 
impregnation with asphalt has been tried in Los Angeles and will be found 
described in the report on that harbor. The use of this method is of too 
recent date to have furnished service records of value. 


Galvanizing or otherwise protecting reinforcement is practised to some 
extent, but it is very difficult to secure a coating which is an efficient pro- 
tection against corrosion and does not at the same time lessen the strength 
of the bond between the steel and concrete. The use of non-corrosive alloy 
steel may help to solve this problem, but such steels must have long time 
tests to determine their efficiency, and their cost will be higher than that of 
carbon steel. A large number of such tests are now under way under the 
direction of the Institute of Civil Engineers of Great Britain. 


It is recognized that there is greater shrinkage in rich concrete than in 
lean, and experiments at the University of Illinois show that in heavily re- 
inforced units such as piles, the shrinkage is sufficient to cause minute 
cracks to appear in the concrete. For this reason an extremely rich mix- 
ture is likely to give as easy or easier access for the salt water to the steel 
than a leaner and more permeable concrete which does not have so much 
shrinkage. A series of experiments on this subject are now under way at 
Leland Stanford Jr. University. It is therefore apparent that any improve- 
ment in the cement which will render the concrete less permeable is of even 
more importance to reinforced than to plain concrete, because the richer 
mixtures with higher shrinkage will be less necessary. 


METAL STRUCTURES 


Three metals, cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, have been quite exten- 
sively used for harbor structures, and it appears from a study of the records 
that the durability of these materials has not been generally appreciated. 
For this reason it is probable that the design of such structures has not re- 
ceived as much study as has that of the more generally used materials, and 
that it may be so improved as to lessen the injury to the structure by cor- 
rosion and shock and to reduce the cost. 


IRON AND STEEL 159 


Cast Iron 


This material, generally used in the form of columns or piles with either 
cast iron, wrought iron or steel braces, deteriorates very slowly in salt 
water. There is a gradual change in the structure of the iron which re- 
sults in the shape and appearance of the member being little changed while 
the iron is replaced by graphite. This action is generally so slow that the 
structure would not be seriously weakened for at least 100 years and prob- 
ably not for twice that time. The older and more impure “white” cast iron 
resists this change better than does the better grades of gray iron. Cast 
iron high in silicon resists corrosion to a large extent, but is brittle and too 
hard to machine easily. Mr. J. Vipond Davies states (Eng. Found. Pub. 
No. 6, p. 39, Feb. 23, 1923) that’ “graphitic corrosion is probably an electro- 
chemical reaction set up within the substance.”’ Cast iron is open to another 
and more serious objection. It is comparatively low in strength, brittle and 
therefore easily broken by shock. 

The record of structures in the table, page 160, seems more satisfactory 
than that of many structures built of materials much more commonly used. 
The reports of “condition” are based on inspections made since 1918, except 
as otherwise noted. 

Wharves at Ft. McRea, Fla., and Ft. Scriven, Ga., are reported as old 
wharves, but exact date of construction unknown. The wharf at Ft. McRea 
was in poor condition in 1919, and that at Ft. Scriven good in the same year. 


In several of these structures where wrought iron or steel braces were 
used it has been necessary to replace the bracing several times, but this can 
be done without interference with the traffic on the pier and therefore is 
not so serious as the replacement of piles. There is, of course, a limit to the 
practicable length of cast iron piles and columns which makes their use im- 
possible in some locations. 

It appears from the reports received that the breakage on account of the 
brittleness of the iron can be greatly reduced by filling the pile or column 
with concrete, even though the concrete itself have low strength. 

So far as obtainable records show, cast steel and “semi-steel’” have not 
been used for such structures, and it is entirely possible that they might re- 
sist corrosion and be stronger than cast iron. 


Wrought Iron and Steel 


These materials have been used in the form of solid round piles, hollow 
piles, rolled sections of other shapes, braces, or as forms or casings for con- 
crete cylinders or piers where the greater part of the strength is furnished 
by the concrete. From the standpoint of corrosion alone the round piles are, 
of course, the most desirable shape because of the smaller area exposed, but 
bracing is more difficult than with other shapes. 

The table on page 161 in which the reports on “Condition” are based on 
inspections made since 1918 except as otherwise noted, shows the service 
record of structures for which definite data could be obtained. 

A comparison of the tabulations of the concrete, cast iron and wrought 
iron and steel shows 9 concrete structures over 40 years old, of which 5 are 
said to be in good condition, 10 cast iron structures of which 8 are in good 
condition, and 5 wrought iron all more or less corroded but still in service. 

Of structures between 20 and 40 years old, there are 25 concrete struc- 
tures of which 8 have shown practically no deterioration; 7 cast iron, 4 of 


SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER 


160 


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888T TeMOGOW ‘34 ‘FVUM ABA OasfouBT URS 
8L8T AOR YS puejsugq ‘peoy Ajo 
SL8T asnoyWSry oh M “°° ““puspsuy “poom4zoe] J 
OL8T asnoyyYysI] Yooy uveg**pueleez MeN ‘pueppny 
OL8T I ‘ON ‘olg pues] zeayeopy’*** “AVG OostoURIY UG 
OL8T et0szog Ioig uoJysug MON’ puspsug ‘Joodazoary 
GORT JIVYM SUCONY* puelvVeZ MON ‘U0PSUTTIOM 
TS8T asnoyuqyysr] suryonyy’ *puelsuq ‘usAeYysoweyy, 
LEST Aeny osnoy woysng*********puepeay ‘urpqnqg 
PPSt Jaig soeiseay, [eAoy*** *puepsug “pueseaeiy 
OVsT Jaig toqiey***** Duepsug “poomzee| y 
LING qyNLOnNuLs NOILVOOT 

aLvd 


SE  — —eee—e—————————— 
SHUNLOAULS NOU LSVD AO auoody AOIAYAS 


IRON AND STEEL 


161 


SERVICE RECORD OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES 


Date 


Location Structure Built 

Thameshaven, Eng.Mucking Light- 1851 
house 

Florida Reefs..... Lighthouse 1852 

MMOLE cUSser TITG Tats se ss ce ce ose 6s 1872 

PACH PA TADIA, 2) sea e Se sae es ie 1875 

Key West, Fla....Naval Pier A 1879 


San Francisco Bay.Pier 4—Ft. Mason 1886 


Karachi, India....Berth 7 . 1890 
Lamberts Point, 
EViFNE cores sk és Neaé& W2oR. RR: 1892 
Pier No. 2 


Puerto Plata, 


IUCOM LI OMIM LO cisco ess 200 oss 1895 


San Francisco Bay.Lighthouse Depot, 1897 
Goat Island 


Lamberts Point, 


Ee ioe ae eee N. & W. R. R. Pier 1898 
Key West, Fla....Naval Pier 1898 
Tutuila, Samoa....Naval Pier 1899-1900 
Secondee, Sierra 

MBCOMIO UG. 0c 6 5 oa Jetty No. 1 1899 
Chatham, Eng..... Dockyard 1899 
errs Point, 

Wel apts 3 seed eae Iie Cea. Wyieeal Beg Bae 1901 

Pier No. 3 

San Francisco Bay.Q. M. Wharf, Ft. 1903 
McDowell 

mE Dade Mla... 5... Q. M. Wharf 

Secondee, Sierra 

Ot ee Jetty No. 2 1906 
Lagos, Nigeria ....Apapa Wharf 1907 
La Boca, Canal 

JASN Se a eee French Wharf 1908 
Sierra Leone...... Jetty No. 2 1907 
mlerra Decone...... Jetty No. 3 1908 
Hong Kong 

(Kowloon) ..... Wharf Ocean 1907-09 

Ss. S. Co. 
Lamberts Point, 

WG), PINGEOoEVV Re Raeier e913 

MEERUT ee ccc es ec eee eee 1913 


Members 


W. I. braces 


W. I. piles and bracing 
8” W. I. piles 


4” W. I. screw piles 


Wis: piles 


10” W. I. piles 
Steel piles and braces 


12” diameter, 14” thick, 
W. I. columns on C. I 
base 

%” steel cylinder, 4’ 
diameter, concrete 
filled 


12” lap weld piles 


Concrete filled steel 
cylinder 


6” steel piles 


6” and 8” steel piles 


W. I. piles 
Steel piles 


Concrete filled steel 
cylinder 


Steel piles 
Iron piles 
Steel piles 
6” W. I. piles 


Concrete filled steel 
cylinder 


Steel piles 
Steel piles 


H. sec. rolled steel piles 


Concrete filled steel 
cylinders 


Concrete filled W. I. 
cylinders 


Condition 


Rusted. 25 per 
cent of section 
gone 


Good 


Diameter reduced 
tor?’ 1921 


Pitted 1%” to 1” 
in 1908 


Serviceable in. 
1911. Badly 
rusted above 
Eas. W3 


Poor 


22 per cent of 
section lost by 
corrosion 


Good 


Metal practically 
destroyed above 
H. W. 


Heavy corrosion 
above H. W 


10 per cent metal 
lost by corro- 
sion 


Piles good but 
bracing bad 
and cased in 
concrete, 1914 


Good 


Good 

Some rust above 
H. W Good 
below 

1/32” loss from 
corrosion 

Good 


Good 1919. De- 
stroyed by 
storm, 1921 


Good 
Good 


Cylinders de- 
stroyed. Con- 
crete destroyed 
by borers 


Good 
Good 


Badly weakened, 
1915, and en- 
cased in con- 
crete 


Good 


Good 


162 SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER 


which are good and 3 have had minor replacements; 12 wrought iron and 
steel of which 3 are good and all but one of the other 9 show only a relatively 
small amount of corrosion. 

The quality of concrete being made at present is undoubtedly much better 
than that made 40 or even 20 years ago, while wrought iron has practically 
disappeared from the market, and ordinary steel made at present probably 
does not resist corrosion any better if as well as that made 380 years ago. 
But the durability of both concrete and steel can undoubtedly be greatly in- 
creased, the former by the use of a better binding medium with a somewhat 
lower cost, and the latter by the use of alloys such as chromium and copper 
—probably with a somewhat higher cost. 


CONCLUSIONS 


1. On account of the increasing price and growing scarcity of timber and 
the fact that the areas subject to attack by marine borers seem to be in- 
creasing, it seems that piles used for the substructures of all wharves where 
traffic interruptions would be expensive should be protected from borers and 
decay. 

2. In those harbors where marine borers are known to be active or where 
water conditions are favorable to their growth all timber piles should be. 
protected. 

3. The cost of protection is so high and the uncertainty of results so 
great that for those structures where long life is desired careful considera- 
tion should be given to the use of substitutes. 

4, Cast iron supports, where conditions are suitable for their use, will 
probably give longer service than any other material at present available. 

5. Wrought iron structures have an excellent record, and if this material 
could be obtained at reasonable cost, structures built in locations suitable 
for its use and not for cast iron would probably give longer service than any 
other available material. 

6. Some concrete structures have given excellent service for many years. 
It is a more flexible material from a construction standpoint than metal, and 
therefore more desirable. It cannot be considered a uniformly permanent 
material at present, though it is probable that further study of the binding 
media will result in much longer life for structures built: of concrete. 

7. Steel structures have as good a record as concrete but are generally 
more expensive. If the corrosion of steel can be prevented by the use of 
alloys or by any other economical method, there are many locations where 
it would prove the most desirable construction material, unless concrete can 
be so improved as to give a lower equated cost per year. 


CHAPTER VIII 


SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 


The engineer, in selecting materials for structures to be erected in sea 
water, must be governed in part by the life required for the structure, the 
character of the structure and the traffic for which it is built, the materials 
available in the local markets and their cost, and the funds available for 
construction. The preceding sections of the report give detailed informa- 
tion regarding the record of various materials and means of protection, and 
it is thought that a summary will be useful. 


1. For temporary structures in harbors where borer attack is compara- 
tively light, unprotected timber offers the most economical material, and in 
harbors where the attack is heavy and there is a substantial period of in- 
activity, temporary structures of unprotected timber may be built with 
safety if they are constructed at about the close of the annual period of 
activity of the borers and are not required to carry maximum loads more 
than a few months after the beginning of the next period of activity. 


2. The service records of turpentine wood, manbarklak, malabayabas and 
mancono are promising, and where their cost is not excessive a compara- 
tively long-lived and economical structure will probably be obtained by their 
use. | 


3. For structures where a somewhat longer life than is given by unpro- 
tected timber is required, and where, for economic or other reasons, relative 
permanency is not desired, unbarked piles may be used, care being taken to 
see that the bark is tight and that knots and blazes are covered with metal 
capable of resisting corrosion for the probable life of the timber. In 
tropical waters where palmetto is available a similar result may be obtained 
by the use of this timber. 


The life of timber in heavily infested harbors may also be prolonged for 
one or two seasons by sheathing square piles with creosoted boards securely 
nailed, or by the use of brush treatments with creosotes or carbolineums or 
other pile coatings whose effectiveness has been demonstrated by tests. 
Such protection, if carefully given, can be depended on to carry a structure, 
located in a zone of heavy attack, through at least one period of activity. 


4. Next in the scale of protection will be found “Pile Armors” of the type 
of the Perfection Pile, though the difficulty in placing timber so protected 
without damage to the armor is considerable. The life to be expected from 
the use of the Moran Process is not yet proven by service, but it promises 
to be more durable than several other methods of a similar type. 

5. While the service records of structures protected by “Scupper Nailing” 
are comparatively few in number, they are promising, and where labor costs 
do not make this method too expensive it is worthy of consideration. Nails 
should not be spaced over one-half inch center to center, and should be about 
one inch in length. 

6. Impregnation with creosote seems to give economical and efficient pro- 
tection in the cooler waters when the structures are well built and the 


. a 


164 SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 


construction of heavy structures with permanent decks, or those supporting 
important buildings where replacements would cause heavy traffic losses, 
and where such structures are located in warm and heavily infested waters, 
it will be found economical to protect creosoted piles from attack. 


7. Copper sheathing and vitrified pipe casings will give very long life if 
unbroken, but this condition can only be met in comparatively few locations. 
Maximum life of a structure so protected will not be obtained unless the 
timber above high water is protected from decay. 


8. Properly built concrete casings may be expected to give fair onatsoHioe 
especially if the concrete be dense. The use of the cement gun is a good 
method of securing this result. 


9. The most efficient means of protecting wooden piles, which is also one 
of comparatively high cost, is by the use of cast iron casings. The space 
between the iron and timber should be filled with concrete, the pile should 
be covered from a point below the possibility of scour to a point slightly 
. above high water and the timber should be protected from decay above high 
. .water, since a life of from 50 to 100 years may be expected from the iron. 


10. The service given by structures of plain and reinforced concrete 
shows great variations. When well built with good materials they are much 
more durable than timber structures. The durability of the binding media 
at present in general use is questionable and can be much improved. 


11. The durability of wrought iron structures as shown by the records 
is such as to justify the careful consideration of this material wherever it 
can be obtained. Cast iron structures have even a better record, and more 
study of their. design would probably result in improvement in that respect. 
Where conditions are suitable for the use of this material it is probable that 
cast iron structures properly designed and constructed will have longer life 
than those built of any other material now used for the purpose. 


These conclusions are based on the records at present available, and are 
not intended to predict the more efficient methods of timber protection 
which will, it is expected, be developed by studies of the Chemical Warfare 
Service and others, now in progress, the improvements in cement which the 
studies of the Committee show to be possible, or the improvement in the 
methods of preventing the corrosion of metals which is receiving much 
study. 


CHAPTER IX 


PROGRESS REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL WARFARE 
SERVICE 


Since the personnel of the Chemical Warfare Service was experienced in 
toxicity studies and the information already in their hands was of great 
value, it was thought that this organization was especially well fitted to 
make an investigation for the purpose of developing new or improving old- 
methods of protection for wooden structures from the attack of marine 
borers. The officers of this Service were very willing to undertake such an 
investigation, and as their own appropriations were inadequate and un- 
available for such use, the Committee was able to arrange for the appropria- 
tion of sufficient funds by the Department of Commerce, the Bureau of 


Yards and Docks of the Navy Department, and the Quartermaster Corps of 
the Army. 


The program for the investigation was prepared by the scientific staff of 
the Chemical Warfare Service, with the advice and assistance of several 
members of the Committee and its Director. This program provided for a 
study of methods for improving the protection of new timber structures, 
and for the development of methods of protection for existing structures at- 
tacked or threatened with an attack by marine borers. 


The work was commenced at the Edgewood Arsenal in January, 1923, and 
by the beginning of the season of activity the biological studies were com- 
menced at the laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries of the Department of 
Commerce at Beaufort, N. C., which Bureau has actively cooperated in the 
investigations. This study was closely allied with the study of anti-fouling 
paints already under way under the supervision of Dr. A. W. Bray, whose 
assistance and advice was made available by the Bureau of Construction — 
and Repair of the Navy. 


The progress report of the Chemical Warfare Service which follows shows 
that great progress has been made in both phases of the investigation, and 
by the discovery of many previously unknown facts a valuable foundation 
has been laid for the studies which will be prosecuted during the coming 
year. It is thought that after another season’s study some definite recom- 
mendations can be made for the improvement of the materials used for 
impregnation, and it is hoped that a method for the protection of existing 
structures may be developed. The Chemical Warfare Service and the in- 
dividual scientists can be congratulated on the progress which has been 
made. 


165 


166 


CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


PROGRESS REPORT 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PAGE 

I. -INTRODUCTION 2... 000 0 168 

II. HISTORY, 3. 6. oe Se Ek eg es oe 168 

IIT. THEORETICAL 6 s5< §0)c:0:sviscd cps 0) ere 169. 

A. Breeding. Season. ou... :.ki8oi. 4 ee 169 

B. Toxic Action of Impregnants:. 7 - Gee eee 170 

C. Theory of Impregnation..~.>. 2.2. 3. eee 170 

D. Gharacter of Ideal Impregnant.. 7 ae eee 171 

IV. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK...............-.-- 171 

A. Toxicological and Biological... 7.222). ee 171 

B. Prevention of Attack on Existing Structures.... 173 

GCG. . Protection of New Structures... ;.. sss 175 

V. CONCLUSIONS ...... «os c+ 0 ose eee oo ieee 176 

VI.° BIBLIOGRAPHY ©... 80) 0. 7 OS 179 
APPENDICES: 


I—Toxicity of Certain Compounds on Marine Wood 
Boring Organisms Together with Some Physio- 
logical Considerations—Report No. E.A.C.D. 288. 180 


II—The Destruction of Marine Borers in Piling by 
the Action of Chlorine Generated by the Electrol- 
ysis of Sea Water—Report No. E.A.C.D. 286.... 197 


IlI—Preservation of New Wooden Structures from 
Attack by Marine Borers—Report No. E.A.C.D. 
299. wc Ee ee, . 202 


PROGRESS REPORT ON THE MARINE PILING 


INVESTIGATION 
January 8, 1924 


By H. W. Walker 


ABSTRACT 


Marine borers, mainly Limnoria lignorum, and shipworms, cause im- 
mense economic loss by their destruction of wooden marine structures. - 
While this fact has been known for centuries, it was forcibly brought to the 
attention of the American public by the recent invasion of San Francisco 
bay where property amounting to millions of dollars was destroyed by these 
pests and the possibility of the recurrence of such an attack at a new loca- 
tion constitutes an ever present menace so long as untreated timber is used, 
or until definite means for the prevention of such an attack can be found. 

The Chemical Warfare Service started preliminary work on this problem 
in January, 1923, and the results of this work to date are included in the 
following report and its appendices. 


A large number of compounds were examined for their specific toxicity 
effects and a total of eleven compounds has been found which are definitely 
toxic to these organisms. Several chemical warfare compounds are in- 
cluded in this list, in fact, the best all around specific toxic found was 
chlorvinyl arsenious oxide, a modification of the well known war gas 
“Lewisite.” 


Preliminary work was started on the protection of existing structures 
and definite plans have been suggested for the carrying out of this phase 
of the investigation. 


Several hundred test pieces, impregnated in various ways, were exposed _ 
to marine borer attack in the harbor at Beaufort, N. C., and valuable pre- 
liminary data have been secured. In every case the impregnated pieces gave 
better protection than unimpregnated control pieces, and in the majority 
of cases there was no attack at all on the treated pieces after from three to 
five months’ exposure. 


The determination of the most suitable materials for impregnation will 
ultimately depend on the economy of the material and the cost of impreg- 
nation, and additional work is essential before such materials can be 
definitely selected. | 


The conclusions drawn in this report are merely tentative as this is 
essentially a progress report; further investigations must be made before 
permanent conclusions can be drawn. 


167 


168 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


PROGRESS REPORT ON THE MARINE PILING 
INVESTIGATION 


January 8, 1924 


I. INTRODUCTION 


The purpose of this investigation is the protection of wooden structures 
in sea water against the attack of marine boring organisms. Preliminary 
work on the problem was started in January, 1923. The present paper, 
which is essentially a progress report, describes the work of the Chemical 
Warfare Service on this problem since that time. Only tentative conclu- 
sions have been reached as the work has not been completed. 

The problem natuarlly divides itself into two phases: the preservation 
of structures already in place, and the treatment of timber for new struc- 
tures in order to prevent destruction. 

The main types of marine borers against which protection is needed are 
the crustacean (Limnoria) and the molluscan (Teredo and Bankia) borers. 

The research was conducted along three lines: 

1. General: 

Under this head are the toxicological and physiological tests made during 
the summer of 1923 at Beaufort, N. C. 

2. Protection of Existing Structures: 

Investigations were made of the effects of chlorine generated by elec- 
trolysis of sea water on shipworms in wood blocks, and the possibility of the 
use of small pieces of copper imbedded on the surface of the piles. 

3. Protection of New Structures: 

Sections of railroad ties, 12 inches long by approximately 3 inches square, 
were impregnated with various toxics at Edgewood Arsenal and exposed for 
actual service tests at the Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory, Beaufort, N. C. 

It should be emphasized here that these tests were carried out before the 
specific toxicity information was available and the materials used on im- 
pregnation work were selected more or less at random to include a wide 
range of compounds of known general toxicity, so that no possible material 
would be overlooked. 

The railroad ties were furnished by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company 
through Col. Wm. G. Atwood, of the National Research Council, whose ad- 
vice and general assistance regarding the problem are gratefully acknowl- 
edged. The assistance of Mr. R. S. Perry, Jr., Bureau of Construction and 
Repair, United States Navy, and Mr. Charles H. Hatsel, Superintendent of 
the Bureau of Fisheries Station at Beaufort, were of the srenieee value in 
carrying out these tests. 

Funds for carrying on this investigation were appropriated by the 
Quartermaster Corps, U. 8. A., the Bureau of Yards and Docks, U. S. N., 
and the Department of Commerce. 


II. HISTORY 


A “Digest of Available Information on Marine Borers and Preliminary 
Recommendations Regarding Study of Methods of Prevention of Their At- 


oe eee 7, 


PROGRESS REPORT 169 


tack” has been written as Report No. E. A. C. D. 247 (1) and includes a 
fairly comprehensive bibliography. A very extensive bibliography on 
marine wood boring animals has been compiled by Dr. Barrows, of the 
National Research Council (18). 

The results of the toxicity experiments at Beaufort, N. C., during the 
summer of 1923, are given in Report No. E. A. C. D. 288, which is appended 
to this report as Appendix I. The effect of chlorine generated from sea 
water is described in Report No. EF. A. C. D. 286, and the service tests on 
impregnation are described in Appendix III (E. A. C. D. No. 299). 

Harington, in the Third Report of the Committee of the Institute of 
Civil Engineers (2), describes the chemotropic effect of certain compounds 
on the larval stages of shipworm, and in this same report are a paper by 
G. Barger (3) on the investigations to protect timber against Teredo, and a 
general report on creosoting and impregnation of timber, by S. M. 
Dixon (4). 

The Third Annual Progress Report of the San Francisco Bay Marine 
Piling Committee (5) confirms the conclusion drawn in report E. A. C. D. 

No. 247 that timber properly impregnated with the right kind of creosote 
will withstand attack for long periods of time. 

Dr. Henry A. Gardner conducted tests with various paints at Beaufort, 
N. C., during 1922, which were published as Circular No. 176 (6) by the 
Paint Manufacturers’ Association of the United States. In these pre- 
liminary tests the efficacy of copper and mercury paints were quite marked 
and Dr. Gardner has additional tests under way using those materials which 
showed up best. The results of these tests have not yet been published, but 
it is believed that there are several surface coatings or paints which will 
protect as long as they remain intact. 


III. THEORETICAL 
A. Breeding Season 


According to Sigerfoos (7) the breeding season for Bankia gouldi at 
Beaufort Harbor starts about April 15 and continues until about the first 
of November. The test boards of the National Research Council indicate 
about the same period. 

Dr. Coker (8) indicates that the breeding period for Limnoria at the 
same place is from about the middle of April to December 12 and intimates 
that the temperature is the deciding factor, the probability being that the 
production and deposition of eggs by Limnoria at Beaufort ceases when the 
minimum temperature falls to about 14° C., and that the rise of tem- 
perature in spring stimulates a renewal of the breeding activity when the 
minimum temperature rises above 14° C. It would be quite interesting 
to observe the reaction of Bankia in wood blocks to artificially controlled 
temperatures. It is probable that in this feature there would be a wide 
variation with different species. However, it is fairly well established that 
the breeding season is comparatively short along the north Atlantic coast 
and is at its height during the warm summer months, while in tropical 
waters the season seems to be all year round, and it may be concluded that 
warm water stimulates the intensity of attack. 

In addition to Bankia gouldi and Limnoria lignorum, the main types of 
marine borers found at Beaufort are Teredo sigerfoosi and Teredo navalis, 
although these are not nearly so numerous as the other two. 


170 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


B. Toxic Action of Impregnants 


Undoubtedly the comparatively high solubility of creosote and the fact 
that it “sweats” oil for a considerable period, as can be noted by the oily 
film of water in the immediate vicinity of creosote impregnated pieces, de- 
tract somewhat from its efficiency as an impregnant. In time perhaps 
enough creosote will come out of the wood, due to solution or mechanical 


leaching, so that there is not enough remaining to give a lethal concentra- - 


tion in the sea water at the surface of the pile. This would permit the 
veligers to attach, and once they get a start in the wood a much ‘higher 
concentration seems necessary for lethal effect than at the free swimming 
stage. 


The specific toxicity data included in this report (Appendix I) are based 
on the solubility of the toxics in sea water. It is apparent that those com- 
pounds which show a definite toxic effect on the organisms will prevent borer 
attack when used as impregnants so long as they are retained in the wood 
in such quantity that the concentration of the toxic in the sea water in the 
immediate. neighborhood of the impregnated pile will always be sufficient to 
kill the embryos. This fact is independent of the question of whether or 
not the shipworm actually digests, or partially digests, the wood particles. 
But the toxic concentration is probably confined to the immediate surface 
of the impregnated piece. This is indicated by the fact that unimpregnated 
pieces exposed at intervals next to unattacked impregnated pieces all showed 
decided attack which would not have been the case had the toxic dissolved 
sufficiently in the sea water to create a reasonably large toxic area. 


There is good reason to believe that the wood borings are at least partially 
digested by teredine borers (9), and there does not seem to be any doubt 
but that Limnoria actually digests the wood. This being the case, even 
though the toxic were leached out of the impregnated piece beyond the point 
where a lethal concentration would be maintained at the surface of the wood, 
there might be sufficient remaining in the wood to be lethal when taken 
internally over a period of time. 


There are so many factors influencing the solution of the toxic once it 
is in the wood, such as the capillary attraction of the wood and the possible 
formation of compounds with the wood, that it would be impossible to cal- 
culate the length of time necessary to completely dissolve it out. It is be- 
lieved that with a compound which is soluble in sea water only to the extent 
of approximately 1 part per 100,000, sufficient will remain in the wood to 
insure against attack during the economic life of the structure. It is 
stated that piles which have been in water for thirty years have been re- 
moved and showed no evidence of radial penetration of the sea water beyond 
two or three inches. This would indicate the difficulty of leaching out any 
material which was thoroughly imbedded in the pores. 


C. Theory of Impregnation 

The general theory of impregnation is based on the fact that the pores of 
the wood contain air and moisture, which must be removed in order to al- 
low the impregnant to penetrate. The preservative may just coat the wood 
fibers, or completely fill the pores, or it may form a chemical combination 


with the constituents of the wood, as the case may be. A portion of the : 
original moisture on the wood may be removed by seasoning or air drying. — 


The air and some residual moisture may be removed by placing the wood 


; 
% 
1 
t 
4 
j 


> 


PROGRESS REPORT Af! 


in cylinders, which are under reduced pressure for a reasonable period, and 
then allowing the impregnating liquid to be drawn into the evacuated cylin- 
ders and sucked into the more or less empty pores of the wood. The appli- 
cation of pressure at this stage will force the liquid even deeper into the 
wood. 

In the open tank process, the air and moisture are removed by placing the 
wood in a medium which has a higher boiling point than water. When the 
temperature of the medium is raised above the boiling point of water, the 
heated. air from the pores expands and the moisture is partly driven off as 
steam. As the wood is allowed to cool in the impregnating liquid, the ex- 
panded air contracts, forming a partial vacuum in the pores of the wood 
and thereby permitting the liquid to enter the pores of the wood more 
freely. 


D. Character of Ideal Impregnant 


The ideal impregnating material for marine piling should be highly toxic 
both to Limnoria lignorum and shipworms; it should not injure the wood; 
it should be only very slightly soluble in sea water at ordinary temperatures, 
but it should be sufficiently soluble to insure a toxic concentration in the 
immediate vicinity of the surface of the pile, or be sufficiently soluble in the 
digestive fluids of the borer to produce lethal effect. In addition, it is de- 
sirable that it have a preservative action on the wood itself. For purposes 
of economy, it would be desirable to use water as a medium for introducing 
the toxic materials into the wood. It would be highly advantageous if the 
material were sufficiently soluble in hot water, and sufficiently insoluble in 
sea water at ordinary temperatures (up to 90° Fahr.), to precipitate the 
desired quantity of toxic in the wood on cooling. This would permit of 
impregnation by one of the standard processes. 

In case a material cannot be found which is soluble in hot water and 
rather insoluble in sea water at the ordinary temperatures, it should be 
soluble in some cheap medium which could be used as a vehicle in the im- 
pregnating process. This fact has been taken advantage of in certain U. S. 
Patents (10) in which petroleum and paraffine are suggested as carriers. 

An alternative method which might be more desirable than the use of a 
fairly permanent vehicle for the toxic would be the use of a volatile solvent - 
which could be recovered after impregnation, leaving the toxic in the wood. 
This would necessitate the use of a vacuum or vacuum and pressure process 
for impregnation, as these solvents would naturally have a considerably 
lower boiling point than water and, therefore, render the ordinary boiling 
process impracticable. 

Still another possibility is the use of a material which is itself soluble in 
water or in whatever solvent it is desired to use but which forms a more or 
less insoluble compound with the wood itself. It is open to question whether 
this compound should necessarily be toxic, although it is preferable that it 
should, as the formation of a compound which would be indigestible or un- 
palatable to the borer might be sufficient. Most of the organic dyestuffs 
would fall in this class. 


IV. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK 
A. Toxicological and Biological 


1. Review of Data—The toxicological investigations were carried out 
at Beaufort, N. C., during the summer of 1923 by M.S. Allen, of the Medi- 


a 


172 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


cal Research Division, Chemical Warfare Service, assisted by R. H. Carter. 

Laboratory toxicity tests of different compounds were conducted on 
Limnoria, shipworm embryos, exposed shipworms (Bankia removed from 
their burrows), and shipworms in wood blocks. | 

It is of especial note that the order of toxicities of the compounds tested 
was in general the same for all four series. The decreasing order of 
resistivity of the organisms was: embryos, exposed shipworm, Limnoria, - 
and shipworm in blocks. 

The complete details of the toxicity tests are included in Appendix I, but 
it should be mentioned here that of the 45 compounds tested, the following 
stood out in the order named from all the rest in all round toxic value: 


Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide 
Phenyl arsenious oxide 
Mercuric oxide 

Mercuric chloride 
Mercuric arsenate 
Cuprous cyanide 

Cupric orthonitrobenzoate 
Cuprous chloride 
Mercuric anilinate 
Mercuric benzoate 
Crystal violet 


Between these compounds and the others, there was a wide gap. The fact 
that the exposed Bankia gouldi were transferred to fresh sea water as soon 
as they were apparently killed by the toxic, and usually showed no recovery, 
indicates that the criteria of death were fairly accurate. Practically all the 
toxics had a marked fixative action on the dead organisms and deterioration 
was not nearly so marked as in the plain sea water. By changing the water 
daily, over 50 per cent of the specimens of Limnoria were kept alive for a 
month and, in view of the greater ease in collecting and handling this 
species, it may be that a very fair rating for a toxic can be obtained by de- 
termining its action on Limnoria alone. 

In addition to the data included in Appendix I, Carter ran a series of 
toxicity tests on Limnoria and exposed Bankia gouldi, using the ordinary 
salts of various metals, the salts used being the chloride, nitrate, acetate, 
and sulphate, respectively. The results of this investigation showed that it 
made very little difference what salt of the particular metal was used, but 
that the metals rated as follows on all round toxic value: mercury, copper 
and zinc, in the order named. 

Of the other metals, aluminum had a pronounced effect on Limnoria but 
was not tried on exposed Bankia. Barium was fairly toxic to Bankia but 
practically neutral to Limnoria, while manganese, magnesium, lead, tin, and 
iron had practically no toxic value in the form used. 

In this work the solutions were made up of one part of the metal to the 
required dilution of sea water. All the barium compounds were less soluble 
than one part of barium to 100,000 parts of sea water, as were the copper 
and mercurous compounds. 

The particularly interesting feature of this work is that it confirms Dr. 
Gardner’s observations on mercury and copper paints (6) and serves also 
as a check on the general toxic value of mercury and copper salts found by 
Miss Allen. 


PROGRESS REPORT Gis 


Two test boards containing removable blocks, 6 inches x 4 inches, were 
made up according to the specifications of the National Research Council 
Committee on Marine Piling Investigation, and these blocks were removed 
monthly and sent to Mr. Clapp, at Harvard University, for examination 
and classification. The analyses of these blocks are included in the report 
of the National Research Council for 1923. There was no attack on the 
block sent to Mr. Clapp December 8, 1923, which had been exposed thirty 
days, indicating that the breeding season had ceased some time prior to that 
date. Originally these blocks were fastened to a base board by means of 
screws, but the board became so badly dilapidated because of the marine 
borer attack that it had to be replaced and an iron rack is now being used. 

The accompanying small photographs demonstrate that the shipworm 
will cross a crack. (Fig. 32). The block (left) was removed from the 
base board (right) after three months’ exposure. The face of the block in 
the picture shows distinctly that the borers passed through the base board 
into the block. It was observed at the Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory that 
shipworms frequently crossed gaps of at least 1/16-inch from one piece of 
wood to another, which fact shows the fallacy of the old belief that the 
Teredo will not cross a crack. } 

While too much stress should not be put on the average weight of wood 
excavated per shipworm per day (0.05 grams) in Miss Allen’s report, it is 
interesting to note that this figure is five times that estimated in E. A. C. D. 
No. 247 (1), and indicates that it should not be hard to establish a lethal 
concentration within the body of the Teredo, provided the toxic does not 
form with the wood a much more insoluble compound than the toxic itself. 

The only available data on the specific toxicity of creosote are given in 
Dr. Shackell’s work (11) (12) on the emulsions of creosote and creosote 
fractions on Limnoria and exposed Bankia. Unfortunately, the concentra- 
tions he used were usually about 4 parts of the toxic to 10,000 parts sea 
water, which is about forty times the concentration used by Miss Allen. In 
addition, he considered the toxic time as the time required to kill fifty per 
cent of the organisms, while Miss Allen took 90 to 100 per cent deaths as 
her criterion. No definite estimate of the comparative toxicity of creosote 
and the specific toxics placed by Miss Allen at the head of her list can be 
drawn, but it is believed that her most efficient all around toxics are at least 
forty times as effective as creosote, from a lethal standpoint. 


2. Future Work—lIt is hoped to fill in the gaps in the toxicity table in 


Miss Allen’s report during the summer of 1924, and also to make careful ; 
determinations of the toxicity of. various creosotes which will be comparable | 


to the other toxicity data. In addition, it is planned to determine the | 


efficacy of a number of additional compounds, and a sufficient number of | 
wood blocks of the size found most advantageous for laboratory work will | 


be planted in time to insure sufficient specimens for these investigations. 


B. Prevention of Attack on Existing Structures 


1. Review of Data—In accordance with the procedure outlined by the 
inventors, a test was carried out at Beaufort, N. C., July 1, 1923, of a 
method of generating chlorine by the electrolysis of sea water, and it is 
sufficient to state here that there was no evidence of the extremely beneficial 
effects claimed by the sponsors of this process. 

Evidence of the toxic effect of metallic copper and compounds formed by 
the action of sea water on metallic copper seemed definite enough to warrant 


174 CHEMICAL WARFARE’ SERVICE 


the trial of copper studded test pieces. Col. Atwood, of the National Re- 
search Council, found that when some of the test blocks which were already 
attacked by teredine borers were wrapped with copper wire, not only was 
there no further attack, but the borers already in the block were killed. In 
Table I in Appendix III of this report, there is a record of two pieces, Nos. 
16-1 and 16-2, respectively, which were studded with copper tacks on 14-inch 
and %-inch centers, respectively, over the entire surface of the wood. In 
16-1 the “tacks’”’ were simply short pieces of No. 16 gauge copper wire about 
3g-inch long, and in 16-2, ordinary copper carpet tacks were used. Both 
pieces were practically immune from attack, although 16-1 did have one 
small Teredo hole near a knot, where it was impossible to put any copper 
wire pieces. 

It was hoped that, if the exigencies of the situation demanded, the surface 
of the piles already in the water could be covered with copper slugs or shot 
by some such means as an air pressure gun. This work would, of course, 
necessitate the use of a diver, and the expense would undoubtedly be too 
great, except in the most desperate case, as the single cost of the necessary 
cleaning of the barnacles, slime, and other marine growths from the pile 
would be prohibitive. 


Fic. 82—SHOWING THAT SHIPWORMS WILL CROSS A CRACK 


2. Future Work—The possibility of the use of slowly soluble specific 
toxics in the sea water in the immediate vicinity of infested piling is, of 
course, apparent in considering the protection of structures already in 
place. So little is known of the dispersion of small quantities of difficultly 
soluble materials in extremely large bodies of water that it did not seem 
feasible to try any large scale poisoning of the water in Beaufort harbor on 
account of the fishing industry there, and at this writing no place seems 
available for a test of this kind. 

There is no doubt that there are a number of materials which would kill 
both larval and full grown shipworms and Limnoria if placed in the water 
in the immediate vicinity of infested structures, but they would also un- 
doubtedly kill nearly all forms of marine life over the same area and an 
additional region, depending on the local harbor conditions, such as tide, 
current, winds, etc. All the eleven toxics enumerated under IV-A-1 would 


PROGRESS REPORT 175 


be efficacious for this use, and it is likely that a number of cheaper arseni- 
cals, such as calcium arsenate, as well as other compounds, could be used to 
advantage. There should be sufficient of the toxic placed in the water to 
create a toxic area immediately around each pile having a concentration of 
at least one part of toxic to 100,000 parts of sea water for a period of from 
five to seven days. The material could be suspended in cloth or porous tubes 
of small diameter (one inch or less) along the entire length of each pile, and 
kept in place by fastening to the pile at the top, and by having a weight at 
the bottom end of the tube. It is probable that this treatment could be in- 
stalled for about $2 per pile for the cheaper toxics. It would have to be 
repeated at fortnightly intervals, or certainly no longer than monthly in- 
tervals, during the breeding season. These data are based mainly on con- 
jecture, and actual tests are necessary before they can be accepted with any 
great assurance, and even then the local conditions mentioned before would 
cause wide variations. A better surface distribution might be secured by 
the use of a cloth tube wound around the pile in the form of a helix, having 
the toxic in its core, although it is doubtful whether this would be necessary. 
It might be that by the use of a non-toxic material of the same degree of 
solubility as the toxic which it is desired to use, both the speed of solution 
of the material and the distribution of the concentration of the material 
over the surrounding water could be fairly accurately determined. Possibly 
this might be carried out using some innocuous dye, and the concentrations 
in the surrounding water determined by colorimetric methods. There is a 
possibility that in a land locked harbor, with a number of timber structures 
to protect, the amount of toxic necessary to insure protection for each 
might eventually be such that the whole harbor would be polluted and it 
will be necessary to ascertain the limits of dispersion for non-toxic com- 
pounds of the same degree of solubility as the toxics which it is desired to 
use before any actual poisoning test can be made. 


C. Protection of New Structures 


1. Discussion—The data from the service tests at Beaufort, as de- 
scribed in Appendix III, indicate that certain toxics, when used as impreg- 
nants, give definite protection against marine borers for a short period of 
time. How lasting this protection will be, it is impossible to state on the 
basis of tests made to date, but when the service test data are studied in 
conjunction with the specific toxicity data, there is certainly basis for the 
presumption that several of the materials used in the service tests will 
probably protect for 30 years or more. In fact, the results of the investiga- 
tion of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, as published in 
their Third Annual Progress Report (5), show that protection for a period 
of from 15 to 20 years can be secured by proper creosote impregnation, and 
this narrows the problem of protection of new structures to the point of 
finding a material which will give protection for.a longer period than creo- 
sote, or of finding a cheaper material than creosote, which will give equal 
protection, or of finding a material cheaper than creosote which will give 
protection for a longer time. 

There is no doubt that the addition of a specific toxic to creosote will 
give protection for a longer period than creosote alone. 

It is quite probable that with the use of some cheaper vehicle than creo- 
sote, several of the specific toxics found, when used in this vehicle, will give 
protection equal to creosote for less cost. 


176 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


It is possible that when all the data are available, one or more materials 
will be found which will give protection for a longer period than will creo- 
sote, and at less cost. 


In the service tests, creosote was used as a vehicle for a great many of 
the toxics as it was hoped that by the use of sheathed pieces the relative 
efficiency of the specific toxics would be indicated. It was shown by 
Shackell (12) that a shipworm will pass from an untreated piece of wood 
into a creosoted block and, if after going through the sheathing into a 
block impregnated with creosote plus a specific toxic, the borer was killed, 
stopped, or repelled, there could be no question but that the toxic, and not 
‘the creosote, did the work. As explained in Appendix III, it was some time 
before the right kind of sheathing was developed, and by that time, it was 
too late for shipworm attack. It is hoped that the data will be available by 
the end of next summer. 


Most of the service tests using carriers other than creosote were exposed 
too late to obtain any definite results; consequently, these pieces, along with 
others, making fifty in all, are still being exposed at Beaufort. Although 
there will be no new attack until next spring, the toxics will have an op- 
portunity to partially leach out, and the borers already in the sheathing will 
have a chance to penetrate to the treated block. After the breeding season 
commences, these pieces will be inspected from time to time for indication of 
attack, and will finally be withdrawn about the close of the breeding season 
in the fall. 


2. Future Work—The large scale apparatus shown in the accompany- 
ing photograph (Fig. 33) is designed for the impregnation of round fence 
posts by the temperature-vacuum-pressure process. These posts are 8 feet 
long with an approximate diameter of 4 to 6 inches. It is planned to im- 
pregnate sets of ten posts each with the same toxic, and expose them at 
Beaufort before the breeding season commences, to serve as long time tests 
for the most promising materials. It is planned to pull one post per year 
at the close of the season, and make a thorough examination for evidence of 
attack. Among the materials which will be used for this work are 
diphenylchlorarsine, diphenylaminechlorarsine, crystal violet, phenylarseni- 
ous oxide, and others. 


A set of creosote impregnated posts will be run as a check. Each set of 
posts will be impregnated by the process best adapted for the particular 
toxic used. 

The use of different vehicles to carry the toxics will be investigated and 
it is planned to try other solvents than creosote in order to cut down the 
cost. Preliminary work will be carried out with the smaller test pieces, 
although fuel oil will probably be tried out as a vehicle for some of the more 
toxic arsenicals on a larger scale. 


It is probable that smaller percentages than 5 per cent of the more toxic 
materials will prove effective and it is planned to try as low as 1 per cent of 
these compounds. 


V. CONCLUSIONS 


1. All of the impregnated pieces used gave much better protection against 
marine borer attack than unimpregnated pieces. 


2. The most efficient all around toxics with regard to the four types of 


a: 


y 


PROGRESS REPORT 177 


marine borers studied, are as follows, in the order named: 


Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide 
Phenyl arsenious oxide 
Mercuric oxide 

Mercuric chloride 
Mercuric arsenate 
Cuprous cyanide 

Cupric orthonitrobenzoate 
Cuprous chloride 
Mercuric anilinate 
Mercuric benzoate 
Crystal violet 


Between the efficacy of these compounds and that of the other materials 
tested, there is a wide gap. 


3. The addition of 5 per cent of specific Farin such as diphenylchlorar- 
senious oxide, diphenylaminechlorarsenious oxide, phenylarsenious oxide, 
etc., to creosote for impregnation purposes would seem to afford definite 
protection for piling against marine borers. 

4. While the length of exposure was not sufficient to justify too optimistic 
conclusions, it is believed that piling so impregnated will stand up for a 
longer period than straight creosote impregnated piling. 

5. While quite a few compounds of undoubted toxicity have been found, 
the choice of the best all around toxic for impregnation work will eventually 
depend upon the comparative economy of material and process cost in in- 
troducing the same. 

6. The cost of the carrier for the toxic will probably prove the determin- 
ing factor in the choice of the best all around toxic. Economically, the 
carriers used are as follows, in order of cheapness: 


a. Water 

b. Fuel oil 

ec. Benzol (figuring recovery) 
d. Ammonia 

e. Creosote 


7. If a method can be perfected using toxic dyes in water solution which 
will obtain the desired depth of impregnation, and which are fast to sea 
water, they will probably prove the most economical of the compounds used. 

8. It is believed that most of the impregnation results can be duplicated 
on large scale apparatus sufficiently well for practical purposes. 

9. The toxicity results indicate that Limnoria can be used as a criteria 
for the specific toxicity of any compound on all the types of marine borers 
studied. 

10. There is no doubt that shipworms will cross a crack between one piece 
of wood and another, provided the gap is not too great. 

11. The specific toxicity effect of various creosotes on marine borers 
should be determined. 

12. A test should be carried out using a material which is very slightly 
soluble in sea water, and which is non-toxic to marine life in order to de- 
termine the time required to dissolve the same when suspended in cloth 
tubes of about 1 inch diameter along the side of piling. 


178 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


Fic. 383—“LARGE SCALE” VACUUM-PRESSURE IMPREGNATING APPARATUS 


ee 


> 


PROGRESS REPORT io 


13. Additional work is necessary before final conclusions can be drawn 
and the expense of pile protection estimated. 


VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1. Walker & McQuaid—Digest of Avail- 8. Coker—Breeding Habits of Limnoria 


able Information on Marine Borers at Beaufort, N. C., Journal Elisha 
and Preliminary Recommendations Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 
Regarding Study of Methods of DOS Vi NOSw and 2) AUZust,..L0 2a 


Prevention of Their Attack. 


Chemical Warfare Service Report 
INOuu. A.C. DD. 247. 


9. Dore and Miller—The Digestion of 
Wood by Teredo Navalis, University 


of California Publications on 
2. Harington—Third (Interim) Report AOOLWEY, oVOl. 2X11, «No, 67,” pages 
of the Committee of the Institution 383-40, February 1, 1923. 
i Civil Engineers for 1923, page 49 partseh—Method of Wood Protec- 
: tion— 
3. 3 aa The ia Report of U. S. Patent No. 1,374,806. 
the Committee of the Institution o Ellis— aisle @ 5 
Civil Engineers for 1923, page 24. Totes ie ROL cece 


4. Dixon—Third (Interim) Report of 
the Committee of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers for 1923, page 87. 


11. Shackell—Comparative Toxicity of 
Coal Tar Creosote and Creosote Dis- 
tillates, and of Individual Con- 


5. Third Annual Progress Report of stituents for the Marine Wood 
the San Francisco Marine Piling Borer, Xylotrya, Proc. of American 
Committee, February 20, 1923, page Wood Preservers’ Association, 1915, 
ite page 233. 

G Gardner—Circular 176 of the Paint 12. Shackell—Marine Borers from the 
Manufacturers’ Association of the Wood Preservers’ Standpoint, Proc. 
United States, Scientific Section, of American Wood Preservers’ Asso- 
“Marine Borer Paints,’ May, 1923. ciation, 1916, page 127. 

7. Sigerfoos—Natural History, Organi- 13. Barrows—Bibliography on Marine 
zation, and Late Development of Wood Boring Animals, National Re- 
Teredinidae, or Ship Worms, Bureau search Council, Washington, D. C., 


of Fisheries Document No. 639, 1907. ADs LG seo 23. 


180 


ib GE 


IV 


VI. 


CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


APPENDIX I 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PAGH 
INTRODUCTION (2 02 cee cae wee a 2 5 ae oe 181 
MATERIALS | oy us oe ee v cen da 5 eles te nr 182 
A. Organisms ....0..0..62..5 0. .0s oe 182 
B.. Toxies ws sce sec cess a bes a 8, 182 
FEIXPERIMENTAL . 0.000.560 000s « ps 00 eee 183 
A. Toxicity Tests on Limnoria.......2 one 183 
B. Toxicity Tests on Exposed Bankia. 2. eee 183 
C. Toxicity Tests on Bankia in Wood Blocks........ 185 
D. Toxicity Tests on Bankia Embryos............. 187 
E. Discussion: of Toxicity. Results...) eee 189 
F. Reaction of the Digestive Tract of Bankia...... 192 

G. Effect of the Decrease in Salinity of Sea Water 
on Exposed Bankia.........42 se 192. 

H. Effect of the Increase in the Hydrogen Ion Con- 
centration on Teredo and Limnoria............-. 193 


I. Study of the Wood Boring Activities of Bankia. 194 


CONCLUSIONS ......% ss «0s aw oo 4)c 5 Sennen 195 
RECOMMENDATIONS ....5«+ «5 se Jee ieee 195 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ©... 600s ed ewe ao oe eee en 196 


APPENDIX I 


TOXICITY OF CERTAIN COMPOUNDS ON MARINE 
WOOD BORING ORGANISMS TOGETHER WITH 


SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 
October, 1923 


By M. S. Allen and R. H. Carter 


ABSTRACT 


The object of the investigation was to test certain compounds for their 
toxicity on marine wood-boring organisms and to investigate certain 
physiological facts concerning the Teredine borers. 


Substances were tested on Limnoria lignorum, Bankia me in an ex- 
posed state, on the swimming embryos of Bankia gouldi and on Bankia 
gouldi in wood blocks. The toxicity of the various compounds was approxi- 
mately the same for the various organisms. The embryos of Bankia gouldi 
were obtained by artificial fertilization of the ova, and were ewe) 
raised to the veliger stage. 


Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide, phenyl arsenious oxide, mercuric oxide, mer- 
curic chloride, mercuric arsenate, cuprous cyanide, cupric ortho nitro ben- 
zoate, mercuric benzoate, and crystal violet were the most toxic out of 45 
compounds tested. 


The digestive tract of Bankia gouldi was found to be neutral in reaction. 
Bankia gouldi was not able to withstand a reduction in salinity lower than 
4 parts per thousand. 


I. INTRODUCTION 


The object of this investigation was to determine the toxicity of certain 
compounds on marine wood boring organisms, and to investigate certain 
physiological facts concerning the teredine borers. It was intended to use_ 
methods for toxicity tests which were much more rapid than the exposure. 
of treated wood in infested waters. In this manner, obviously useless com- 
pounds would be eliminated, and the number to be tested by long time ex- 
posures materially reduced. 

This work was carried on from June 18 to September 15, 1923, at the: 
Marine Biological Station of the United States Bureau of Fisheries boca ied | 
at Beaufort, N. C. 

The invaluable direction and assistance rendered by Dr. A. W. Bray is. 
gratefully acknowledged, as is also the cooperation of Mr. Chas. H. Hatsel, 
Superintendent of the Station, and Mr. R. H. Perry, Jr. 

The biological station is located on a small island about 100 yards from 
the mainland. The channel from Bogue Sound and the ocean bound the 
south and east sides; to the north and west there is open, shallower water. 


181 


182 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


Wooden structures on all sides of the island are heavily attacked by teredine 
borers and by the crustacean, Limnoria lignorum. 


II. MATERIALS 
A. Organisms. 


Limnoria lignorum and Bankia gouldi were the species used in all the 
toxicity tests. Limnoria lignorum is a small crustacean about 3 mm. long 
which is found in enormous numbers in wooden structures between the high 
and low tide marks. It makes tunnels about one millimeter in diameter 
running near the surface of the wood. Specimens were obtained easily from 
wood chipped off piles near the dock. 

Bankia gouldi is the shipworm found in the greatest numbers in the 
vicinity of the island. The eggs of Bankia are fertilized after extrusion 
from the female and go through their embryonic life independently of the 
adult—not being carried in the gills as are those of some species of Teredo. 
At the time of attachment to wood the young Bankia has the form of a 
small bivalve. The bivalve shells are used to excavate a burrow which the 
animal digs to accommodate its rapid growth. The body elongates so that 
in its adult form it has the modified shells at the anterior end for burrowing 
and a long tubular body terminating in two siphons, one exhalant, one in- 
halant, which remain at the point of entrance to the burrow. (1) When 
disturbed the delicate siphons are withdrawn into the opening which is 
blocked by an outthrust of the pallets. The burrow is lined with a cal- 
careous material. Bankia gouldi differs from Teredo sigerfoosi, also to be 
found there, in its smaller size, in the shape of the boring shell, and in hav- 
ing cone-shaped instead of paddle shaped pallets. For further information 
on organisms the reader is referred to Report No. E. A. C. D. 247. 

Pieces of wood of various sizes were planted in the water on the west and 
south sides of the island to provide specimens. A large number of hard pine 
blocks, 2 inches by 4 inches by 8 inches, were nailed onto strips of board 
and sunk in the water. Several pieces of soft pine, 1 inch by 6 inches, of 
the type used to sheathe treated pieces and two bales of cedar shingles were 
planted. The shingles were to obtain small uniform specimens that could 
be easily chipped out. While they were attacked to quite an extent by 
Bankia the specimens obtained were curiously transparent and delicate, very 
unlike the firm white specimens found in the pine blocks. The nacreous 
lining of the burrows in the shingles was thin and fragile and often not 
continuous. On this account these specimens were not used for toxicity 
work. A better material for this purpose would have been thin soft pine 
boards of the type of which boxes are made. 

A small number of large specimens of Teredo sigerfoost were obtained 
from planks which had been in use for some time in the terrapin beds on 
the north side of the island. These planks contained an occasional specimen 
of Bankia. One specimen of Teredo sigerfoosi was found in wood on the 
other side of the island. Specimens were secured by whittling them from 
their burrows with a jack-knife. 


B. Toxics 


All toxicity tests were run with sea water solutions of the substances. 
Accurate solubility data on these compounds in sea water were not available 
but for the most part the compounds were only slightly soluble. It was 
decided to use definite dilutions of 1-50,000 and 1-100,000. If a substance 


TOXICITYs. TESTS 183 


would not give a clear solution at a concentration of 1-50,000, this dilution 
was not used. Some few of the compounds (mercury stearate, copper 
stearate, copper rosinate, mercury rosinate, hexachlorethane, toxall, and 
diphenylaminechlorarsine) appeared to be insoluble. The barium and cop- 
per salts apparently had reacted with the salts contained in the sea water, 
making the effective solution somewhat less in concentration. In these 
cases, the compound was shaken with sea water, allowed to stand, and used 
as saturated solutions. In all other cases, there was no visible turbidity. 

The toxicity of mercuric chloride was determined in the same manner as 
that of the compounds being investigated in order to establish a standard of 
comparison. 


Ill. EXPERIMENTAL 
A. Toxicity Tests on Limnoria 


Limnoria has the advantage of being small in size, easily obtained and 
of allowing a large number of tests to be run conveniently and in a com- 
paratively short time. | 

Twenty specimens of Limnoria were used for each test, five in each of 
four small dishes, in about 30 cc. of the toxic solution in 1-50,000 and 
1-100,000 dilutions. When motion appeared to cease individuals were placed 
under the microscope and observed for signs of life when stimulated by a 
teasing needle. True death was distinguished from narcosis by removing 
non-reacting individuals to fresh sea water, and observing them for signs 
of recovery. 

The solutions tested fell naturally into one of two classes: Group A, 
causing 90-100 per cent death in less than seventy hours; Group B, not 
causing 100 per cent death in 120 hours. The lethal time in hours was taken 
for Group A; the percentage dead after 120 hours for Group B. 

Twenty controls in sea water were run parallel to each set of tests, a set 
comprising an average of five toxic substances. Of about 400 individuals so 
tested as controls, 95-100 per cent were alive at the end of five days. 


B. Toxicity Tests on Exposed Bankia 


By exposing suitable wood, there is no difficulty in obtaining a supply of 
Bankia although considerable time and patience is required to remove 
specimens intact from their burrows. Specimens showed a high degree of 
variation in their condition following removal from the wood. The tem- 
perature, the amount of handling necessary to secure them, the type of 
wood from which they were obtained, and other probable factors affected 
their resistance. Undamaged specimens of Bankia survived twenty-four 
hours in sea water. The period of survival could be lengthened consider- 
ably, to forty-eight and even seventy-two hours, by frequently renewing the 
sea water. 

Because of this individual variation, an effort was made in obtaining 
Bankia to secure individuals as uniform in size and appearance as possible, 
those between 2-4 cm. in length being preferred. They were used as soon 
as possible after being whittled from their burrows. Only specimens re- 
acting vigorously when their siphons were touched with a teasing needle and 
being perfectly intact as to mantle were used. Three individuals in 150 ce. 
of the solution in a finger bowl were used for each test in dilutions of the 
toxics of 1-50,000 and 1-100,000. Three specimens in sea water were run 


184 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


TABLE I—Limnoria 
A. Hours To CAUSE 90-100 PER CENT DEATHS 


AT DILUTION AT DILUTION 
oF 1-100,000 OF 1—50,000 


Phenylarsenious oxide eee ee. te eee ete 4% 3 
Chiorvinylarsenious ode... te eae a as ee ns 4 
Mercurie “chidgridecsven.. -as on te ee ts Be ee 8 _4 
Mercuric*oxide rcs cer: ce ce ant ae ee oe ee ae 7% 
Mercuric“anilinate s. PE Soaa ee oe ele ee ee a 24 
Guprous¢yanide 3 ts ea eee oe eee 66 25 
Guprous chloride. 5 2k. eee te ee a eee 69 45 
Mercuric:benzoate: 5. 322. Aiea tee eee eee oe 48 
Gupne orthonitrobenzoate. “ha: Soe. ce. ee eee 69 53 
Mercuric-arsenate (32. oi: nee See eee 69 69 
Benzanilide tg: caecco% 3 Hea eas ee eee ee 69 69 


B. Per CENT DEATHS AT 114-120 Hours 


DILUTION DILUTION 
OF 1-100,000 OF 1-50,000 

ParanitrobenZole B60 evsstic..8 pee ene ee 100 90 
Paris: Treen 22. a.-caisikis ed Hoa eee 95 

*Mereuric rosinate. oc. Sccatk dead ke eee 85 at 
Gupric paranitrobenz0ate st aocies «camino eee 80 95 
*“Cuprie: rosinate.:. . . c0siss chim eee 80 

*Hexachlorethane® si. 'si<iaisttaleititeas. aire eee 80 © 
ALOCS: vate occ coe sad at tee eet ee ee eee 70 85 
Poke 200t sic. % air ov eley oat Ace. ee 70 85 
Triphenylarsine... « «<6 a 4s simian 70 70 
Diphenylamine arsenious oxide .............2eeees 70 

MT OXELE ey cite; « wiscaneidis. 0 dm phe TORR eee ee a ee 60 

Diphenyl arsenious oxide... 7a eeu). une ee eee 50 res 
Lead orthonmtrobenzoates.. 2 sacs anes cee ee 45 80 
Cupricvarsenate <i.0-05 ses eee ee ee eee eee 40 

*Gupric: stearate... ../e2.. 96 tes Ae ee ee 35 

*Mercuric’ stearate 00. Ai i eee ee ee eee 35 

Beeriztls: haces ewe wo ead peste ae aro Oe ee. Site eos eee 30 ste 
Galcium ‘fluoride: :¢. ac. Ton. Ree ee es eee 20 35 
Cupric‘arsenite i). 9.5. 0G h hei Cesena 20 of 
Orthonitrobenzoic’ acid) 202). o>. Payee ee ee ae 15 35 
Antimony pentoxide ....... Trthie he ee aa 10 i 
Grystal violet: oo) .9 05. ASS Sa ee eee es 55 
Cupric!tannate i! H.C a e e  eeee we 45 
Direct*blackivs i Stina’ tes OR. Ae ee Ss 40 
Cupricibenzoate i. .6 55 Jase cen 3 a Aes ee i. 40 
Methylene: bine sor itis fe... Pee Be eee 25 30 
Direct * blue se a Re, Pe ee vi] 20 


Control (in sea water) 5% 
*Not soluble at 1-100,000 parts sea water and run as saturated solutions. 


Note— 1. Toxall is a preparation made by Toch Bros., New York City, and is 
stated to be barium phenocresylate in creosote. 
2. All barium and copper salts formed slight precipitates by reaction 
with sea water, giving a lower concentration than noted. 


TOXICITY TESTS 185 


as controls with each set of four or five tests. These controls survived 24 
hours or longer. 

The reaction of each individual was tested at hourly intervals. When no 
response to the stimulus of the teasing needle occurred, the individual was 
removed to fresh sea water. In only one case, diphenylamine chlorarsine, 
did revival follow the transfer, and in most cases death appeared to be 
practically simultaneous with the absence of response to stimuli. The test 
recommended by some investigators of observing the appearance of degen- 
eration of the siphons did not seem advisable as some of the solutions used 
acted as fixatives and preserved the specimen in good condition. 

It is difficult to account for the effect which a few solutions appeared to 
have in prolonging the life of specimens. In saturated solutions of mercuric 
stearate and mercuric rosinate, to cite the most striking cases, Bankia lived 
for seven days. It is possible the amount of toxic present was just suffi- 
cient to prevent the multiplication of bacteria and protozoa in sea water. 


C. Toxicity Tests on Bankia in Wood Blocks 


Testing the exposed Bankia had in its favor the short time of survival 
and the easy method of testing for death. It was thought, however, that the 
unnatural conditions surrounding the delicate organism upon its removal 
from the burrow might be so large a factor in producing death as to distort 
the toxicity data. | 

With the idea of eliminating extraneous harmful influences Bankia were 
tested in toxic solutions without being removed from the wood. To some 
extent the method followed was that used by Blum in his work on the effect 
of low salinity on Teredo. (2) Fortunately, there were some long, smooth- 
surfaced, 4 x 4-inch timbers remaining from other experiments which were 
well attacked without being riddled by Bankia. These were sawed into 
8-inch lengths, and placed for a few days in glass aquaria of 6 liter capacity 
in gently running sea water. When the timbers were removed from the 
harbor the pallets were extruded and the siphons withdrawn. A gradually 
increasing number of siphons appeared after the block was placed in the 
aquarium. The number of siphons extruded was counted several times a 
day until a maximum and fairly constant count was obtained. The block 
was then placed in a toxic solution of 1-50,000 dilution and allowed to re- 
main for seven days. 

This strength of solution and length of exposure was adopted as a 
standard test after several trials with various combinations of the dilution 
and time elements. A 1-100,000 dilution was too weak to give pronounced 
results with any but a few of the most toxic solutions. Since most of the 
toxic substances were soluble at 1-50,000 and not much higher, this dilution 
was chosen. Short exposures, 6 to 24 hours, had no effect whatever, even 
with the most toxic solutions. Three-day exposures were satisfactory with 
the more toxic solutions; useless with the less toxic ones. The solutions 
were renewed every other day; oftener if necessary to prevent growth of 
ciliatos and mold. 

A carefully counted block was run as a control in sea water parallel to 
each week’s exposure. The control block was kept in standing sea water 
which was changed as often as the toxic solutions were changed. The end 
of seven days frequently showed a decrease in the number of siphons ex- 
truded, but the return to running sea water brought out the original number 
and, in most cases, a larger number of siphons. 


186 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


When a block was removed from water to a toxic solution the mere with- 
drawal of the block from water caused retraction of the siphons. In some 
cases, they were extruded soon after immersion in the toxic. In the case of 
mercuric arsenate no siphons appeared either after the block was placed in 
the solution, or when after seven days it was restored to water. This case 
was unique. With phenyl arsenious oxide, the effect, although decided, was 


TABLE II. EXPOSED BANKIA 


NUMBER OF HOURS TO CAUSE DEATH 
DILUTION OF DILUTION OF 


COMPOUND 1—100,000 1—50,000 
Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide ............ ce 2 
Phenylarsemouspxide®. sta. J. eee 2 3 
Mercurie: Oxides See Woe eee ee a 3% 

Guprous ¢vanide? cto ee aes st; 3% 

Mercuric chioride.% cs. 4 ot. ee on 4 

Mercuric arsenate ...Ge.c eee eee se 5% 

Guprous chloride). Sith Gee . foresee - 6 
Cupriciorthonitrobenzoater.). SN bee 2 11 

Parispereen)’. Gato aetna Ae 9 a 

Grystal violet aai: Stee ee ee ee as 7 

Cupric arsenite’ eo. eae eee 7 

Cuiprie: arsenate ic: iets ste bine tans een 7 

Barium ‘arsenate: 40) Sees. fea TM ; 

Guprics benzoate sti) Ri ae Paice ae ae AL 8 
Methylene:biue Ss... aes, eee — 8 

Cupric paranitrobenzoate ............. Ha 11 

Mercurie ‘anilinate 240.2. ar ei eee Ae 11 

BRaritm nitrate’ .o 2a Stee eae eee 16 

Bariumt acetate. /AW Ree ee 16 

Ferric orthonitrobenzoate .7..0.5.9.7. 16 

Diphenylamine arsenious oxide ........ 21 

Diphenyl arsenious oxide ............. 48 ne 
Gupricttannaters.2f0).. Oa RU 2aneee eee ie 438 
Quininersulphater #. Sui renee uy 72 (2 dead at 12; 

1 alive at 72) 
Benzaniidewys : naw « sacneente wae a 74 (2 dead at 22; 
1 alive at 74) 

Pirect Din eeherekt s ci ao 2 eae eee ee = 7 (1 dead) 
PUNIDTIC —TOSIN ELE es. « asarabsutnc ene ae 48 (1 alive) ; 

Mercurie: DeNZOAtS .. <2 +12, coses cba date eeee Ae 48 (2 alive) 
Direct. blacksan., cio. acca ee ee eee “ee 48 (all alive) 
Diphenylamine chlorarsine ............ Pe 6+ 
POUMDTICCSTOAT ALO | 5.55.4. aputacsas anata ae 42 (all alive) .. 
Paranrovenzoice alia. ito heels Seas ae 96 (2. alive) 
eulercurics stearate «75h ss.2 sce an Gee Ae 7 days 
BILGPCUTIC. POSINALA Se. eZee | Sac aia ues 7 days 


Control (3 in sea water)—All alive at 24 hrs. 
*Not soluble in 1-100,000 parts sea water and run as saturated solutions. 
+No reaction to teasing needle, but all revived in sea water. 


Note.—Barium and copper salts formed slight precipitates by reaction with 
sea water, giving lower concentrations than noted. 


TOXICITY TESTS 187 


delayed. When the block was changed back to water, twenty-five siphons 
appeared, the second day there were four, and from then on only three. In 
most cases, a small proportion was extended during exposure with a return 
of a larger percentage after removal to sea water. 


Withdrawing the block from water brought out a large number of pallets, 
jarring the block brought out still more, but placing the blocks in toxic solu- 
tions, while causing the withdrawal of a large number of siphons, did not 
cause the extrusion of a similar number of pallets. In some cases the un- 
blocked holes could be recognized. At no time, in any toxic solution was the 
number of pallets extruded equal to the number of siphons previously 
counted. 


The length to which the siphons were extended depended, of course, upon 
the size of the individual and to a lesser extent upon its state of activity. 
Three to four cm. was the greatest extension observed. The average was 
1 to 14% cm. Generally the siphons, when extruded in the toxic solution, 
were extended a shorter distance than in sea water. The greatest extension, 
2 and 3 cm., was shown in a solution of Paris green. Upon changing the 
blocks back to sea water after exposure, it was noticed that the siphons were 
extended to a greater distance than usual. A lack of suitable blocks pre- 
vented tests being made on all the solutions on hand. 


While the use of Bankia unremoved from the wood has a decided advan- 
tage in approximating more nearly natural conditions, there is greater dif- 
ficulty in securing suitable material and the time and space required are 
considerable. Occasionally, the maximum number of siphons does not ap- 
pear for several days. The cases where the number of siphons counted after 
exposure was greater than before is due to this tardiness in extending the 
siphons; although in all of these cases the siphons were counted for a week 
or more before the block was placed in the toxic solution. The combination 
of the block exposure and the exposed Bankia makes a dependable test of a 
toxic. 


D. Toxicity Tests on Bankia Embryos 


Attempts to fertilize the eggs of Teredo artificially were made repeatedly 
during the course of the summer. The first successful results were obtained 
with large specimens of Teredo sigerfoosi found in planks from the terrapin 
beds on the north side of the island. Mature eggs were secured from one 
large female, and fertilized with sperm from one of the few males found at 
that time. Segmentation of the eggs took place rapidly and normally. In 
four hours the trochophore stage was reached and the embryos began to 
swim. They were kept alive three days and had reached the free swimming 
veliger stage with a distinct shell formation before the volume of water 
necessary to keep them alive rendered them impossible to find. No inclina- 
tion to settle on wood was shown during this time. 


One female Teredo sigerfoosi was found later in the season in wood other- 
wise containing only Bankia gouldi; it contained mature eggs, which were 
fertilized artificially with sperm from a male Bankia. The eggs developed 
normally, and reached the free swimming stage. They did not differ, as far 
as could be seen, from embryos of unmixed parentage, but died after forty- 
eight hours. 

The Bankia were very difficult to raise. The eggs were fertilized easily 
and segmentation commenced in a large number of trials but was irregular 


188 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


and abnormal. This was due undoubtedly to the immaturity of the eggs 
which were not extruded naturally but had to be teased out of the individual. 
Three attempts with Bankia were finally successful and the toxic solutions 
were tested on the swimming embryos. It was impossible to use the same 
number of embryos for each solution but by drawing up the same amount of 
liquid from the surface of the water in a capillary pipette for each test, a 
fairly constant number (averaging around fifty) was obtained. The tests 
were made in Syracuse watch glasses under the dissecting microscope. For — 
fear that the embryo would not reach the advanced veliger stage, the tests 
were made as soon aS swimming became general and vigorous. 


In all cases, the time elapsing between the first and last death in each 
group was short. 


TABLE III.—BANKIA IN Woop BLOCKS 


DILUTION EXPOSURE SIPHONS EXTENDED 
After 
Removal 
In Sea from Percentage 
Water Toxic Death 


Mercuric chloride ........ 1-100,000 38days 95 44 54 
Phenyl arsenious oxide....1-100,000 38days 113 66 42 
Cuprous cyanide ........ 1- 50,000 38days 91 59 36 
Mercuric arsenate....... 1- 50,000 38 days 29 19 35 
Mercuric oxide.......... 1- 50,000 8days 126 87 31 
‘Cupric orthonitrobenzoate. 1-100,000 8 days 75 57 24 
“Aine cyanide... ois tes ae 1- 50,000 8days 117 122 oe 
Mercuric arsenate........ 1- 50,000 7 days 89 0 100 
Methylene blue.......... 1- 50,000 7 days 23 0 100 
Mercuric rosinate........ Sat. Sol. Tdays 33 0 100 
Mercuric oxide.......... 1- 50,000 7 days 99 1 99 
Phenyl arsenious oxide ... 1- 50,000 7 days 70 3 96 
GCrystaloyiolet-3.7 1- 50,000 T7days 33 4 88 
Chlor vinyl arsenious oxide 1- 50,000 17 days 34, 6 83 
Mercuric anilinate....... 1- 50,000 Tdays 42 32 75 
Cuprous chloride......... 1- 50,000 Tdays 34 47 
Mercuric benzoate....... 1- 50,000 7 days 39 62 
Guprie tannaAteces..-74.° 1- 50,000 7 days 50 50 
Cupric benzoate......... 1- 50,000 7 days 43 55 
Direct. plueia- bs eae he 1- 50,000 7 days 31 41 
Direct. bDlackstc napeans 1- 50,000 Tdays 28 OF. 
Paris... STCGN 05 case ae 1-100,000 7 days 38 42 
Diphenylamine chlorarsine Sat.Sol. 7 days 24 25 
Cupric rosinate.......... Sat. Sol. 7 days 39 39 
Cupric stearate.......... Sat. Sol. 7 days 38 36 
Toxallos docs. sass Sat. Sol. 7 days 29 27 
Gontrol/Blocksc:.cn2% 0 8s Sea Water 3 days 90 95 
Controle blocks :.. anise Sea Water 3 days 97 107 
(SOTILEO ED IOCK oan es ees Sea Water 7 days 100 110 
Control: Blocksc. ic.6%.4 0% Sea Water 7 days 38 38 


Control, Block... 0.16. .We: Sea Water 7 days 29 28 ‘i's 


TOXICITY TESTS 189 


Once the initial difficulty of raising them is passed, the test on Bankia 
embryos is very satisfactory. They are obtainable in vast numbers, are 
easily handled, and in the veliger stage swimming is vigorous and the cessa- 
tion of movement easily observed under the microscope. Individual varia- 
tion in resistance to a given toxic is very slight. This is not true of adult 
Limnoria where the individual variation is high. 


E. Discussion of Toxicity Results 


The time involved in preparing a large number of specimens for experi- 
ments, and the small amount of toxic materials available in certain cases, 
made it impossible to conduct a sufficient number of tests to give complete 
data. However, certain general conclusions can be made from a study of 
the tables. To facilitate comparisons, a collected table is given, in which 
the data of the four preceding studies are summarized. Due to the many 
variables in the experiments, no precise order of toxicities can be given, 
but definite comparisons of the toxicity of a given solution to the different 
organisms is clearly shown. This summary of the toxicity tests is shown 
in Table V. 


TABLE IV.—BANKIA EMBRYOS 


NUMBER OF MINUTES TO CAUSE 100 
PER CENT DEATHS 


Sept. 5 Sept.12 Sept. 13 

; 1-50,000:1-100,000 1-50,000 14-50,000 

Phenyl arsenious oxide............. ele 5 1 1% 

Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide.......... 1% 3% oa 2% 

MPPTOUPIC PEMIOTIC’.. 0.06 sc eee ees cane 6% ye 3% 

WOT COTAE CSTSCN ALC, . . sows cas snes 3 ats ie Aa 

Sie 54 0 Ee 2 re 5 <2 3% 5 

PRCA EECIOIOUS Wl. Sid's poe sa oy a 9 ad: 8 

Mereuric anilinate. .......0.000200. 30 

Cupric orthonitrobenzoate ......... 31 433 ae 30 
MEPPEECULIC UDCNZOALC. 5.62. e enone ne noe ay 40 43 

PUOTOUS SOVANINE..... 2. cs secs ceeds 46 

DEO TIGRICOTOALS fo fiaces vals ws cs nie wee was Ae 50 80 

vg EUS 10 VT 1 ate 165 

Mee erseyilel coc. ee ae fe! 240 

BM TICMAPSERAUC). iss sss sce ee saiiele es 240 re 

CME eve sg «= = hee uc es 8 0 270 A 240 

PArTANnitFovenZolc. ACI. ... «1666.0 50% 270 Pre 240 

SS eee eae ent ee 270 is 

PPDFOUSUCRIOVIOG. 0. pe cca os 300 vs 120 

MEMITIOTSUIDNALG lee ees 300 “oar 240 

SMEs, ode visa 6.3 2 a so covers a. 300 a 240 

RR MEE occa os ns odie Ge 0 Sielaie ac 300 ae 240 

Cupric paranitrobenzoate .......... 390 dtp 240 

IE POMEnTTALG! oy) e PIS. LO ee oe 240 


Control (in sea water)............- Freely swimming after 24 hours. 


190 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


TABLE V.—SUMMARY OF TOXICITY TESTS 


Bankia Bankia Bankia 
Embryos Exposed Limoria in Blocks 
Table IV Table II Table I Table III 


Time to Cause 90-100 


Per Cent Deaths Per Cent 
Minutes Hours Hours Deaths 

Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide (1- 50,000) 1% a 4 83 7 days 
Phenyl-arsenious oxide (1- 50,000) lly 3 3 96° 7 days 
Mercurie oxide (1- 50,000) 5 3% 7% 99 7 days 
Cuprous cyanide (1- 50,000) 46 3% 25 36 3 days 
Mercurie chloride (1- 50,000) 3% 4 4 54 3 days 
Mercurie arsenate (1- 50,000) 3 5% 69 100 7 days 
Cuprous chloride (1- 50,000) 300 6 45 + 7 days 
Cupric orthonitrobenzoate (1- 50,000) 31 age 53 24 °3 days 
Paris green (1-100,000) 270 9 120 + 7 days 
Crystal violet (1- 50,000) 9 7 * 88 7 days 
Cupric arsenite (1-100,000) 240 7 Wo” Pion atarers te tale 
Cupric arsenate (1-100,000) 240 7 ee Le Boe 
Barium arsenate (1- 50,000) ane 7% abba ES a eae nereeee 
Mercuric benzoate (1- 50,000) 40 t 48 “sae etsuags 
Cupric benzoate (1- 50,000) 50 8 * + 7 days 
Methylene blue (1- 50,000) 165 8 T 100 7 days 
Cupric paranitrobenzoate (1- 50,000) 390 14 U2O. A ice! eReseoeremetsestie 
Mercurie anilinate (1- 50,000) 30 11 24 75 7 days 
Ferric orthonitrobenzoate (1-100,000) oe 16 cake oe iniotare Ree 
Diphenylamine arsenious oxide (1-100,000) ae 21 pe RC ar. Case 
Diphenyl arsenious oxide (1-100,000) 5 Ay; 48 8 a aie crete 
Quinine sulphate (1- 50,000) 300 72 Pm! mee Spa yA 2 
Benzanilide (1- 50,000) 270 74 69.4. S, Rrra ce tare 
Paranitrobenzoic acid (1- 50,000) 270 tT 120 < >y pies a coe 
Mercury rosinate (Sat. Sol.) wae 168 * 100 7 days 
Cupric tannate (1- 50,000) 240 48 = {+ 7 days 
Diphenylamine chlorarsine (Sat. Sol.) state 6 as +t 7 days 
Direct blue (1- 50,000) 300 * t ~{ 7 days 
Cupric rosinate (Sat. Sol.) a a . { t days 
Direct black (1- 50,000) 300 7 + ‘7 days 
Cupric stearate (Sat. Sol.) : Tt 4 + bi days 
Mercuric stearate. (Sat. Sol.) ae 168 vite 2 WA ca Ps cid vo. 
Toxall (1-100,000) cA EMail cone") hei 
Hexachlorethane (1-100,000) * Setplied. 5. ee 
Triphenyl arsine (1-100,000) le ae BON rata hc © 
Benzol (1-100,000) ANY 2 Ger whsreneins teeta 
Calcium fluoride (1-100,000) 0 CEP OER tec sets ia 
Orthonitrobenzoic acid (1-100,000) LA ee SER ho 
Antimony pentoxide (1-100,000) F  ~ of yak Seren eae 
Poke root (1- 50,000) Pi Ry Re in ote ts 
Aloes (1- 50,000) sy Ache ee PP, eae 
Lead orthonitrobenzoate (1- 50,000) eat rece “ Pest here Ligh hs 
Zine cyanide (1- 50,000) ei eee wis } > (says 


*Survived over 120 hr. {No effect. 


From the foregoing tables it may be seen that the compounds used are 
quite consistent in their effects upon Limnoria, exposed Bankia, Bankia 
embryos, and Bankia in wood blocks. The use of the four tests is desirable, 
when possible, but results from any one of the four alone, when carefully 
run and controlled, can be depended upon to give a good idea of the value 
of a compound. The toxicity value of a single compound could be deter- 
mined by testing it and mercuric chloride simultaneously. 


TOXICITY TESTS 19h 


From the foregoing tables, the following compounds have a greater toxic- 
ity value than any others, and are arranged in order of toxicity: 


Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide 
Phenyl arsenious oxide 
Mercuric oxide 

Mercuric chloride 
Mercuric arsenate 
Cuprous cyanide 

Cupric orthonitrobenzoate 
Cuprous chloride 
Mercuric anilinate 
Mercuric benzoate 
Crystal violet 


Between these solutions and all the others there is a decided decrease in 
effectiveness. The value of mercury and copper compounds and of mercury 
over copper is indicated. Of the dyes tested, crystal violet showed up very 
well, especially on embryos. Methylene blue was ineffective in all other 
tests, but gave good results on Bankia in blocks. This result is not depend- 
able as the blue dye precipitated out on the wood, the solution becoming 
colorless. As often as this occurred, the solution was renewed, so that un- 
doubtedly the Bankia were exposed to a higher concentration than 1-50,000. 
This occurred to a lesser degree with crystal violet, direct blue, and direct 
black, and possibly with other compounds, not dyes, and so not visibly pre- 
cipitating. This question of precipitation on the wood must be taken into 
consideration in all compounds so tested, and is a disadvantage in the use 
of blocks. 


It is probable that the substances which were not soluble at a dilution of 
1-100,000 are more valuable than the tables would indicate, as even with the 
minute quantity which must have been in solution when the compounds were 
considered saturated, there was quite a pronounced effect in some cases. 


Shackell has investigated the question of the toxicity of creosote and creo- 
sote distillates on Limnoria (7) and Bankia (Xylotrya) (6). He used 
higher concentrations than any in this report, 0.04 per cent being the lowest 
he mentions. Valuable comparisons could have been made had a series of 
tests on creosotes and creosote distillates been made this summer to parallel 
those on the toxic compounds tested. 


Teredo sigerfoosi can block its burrow effectively without extending its 
pallets to the surface of the wood. Judging from the structure of the pallets 
and burrow of Bankia gouldi, it seems that this animal must have the 
pallets extended beyond the wood in order to block its burrow. From the 
number of siphons extended in the toxic solution and the absence of pallets 
plugging other burrows, it must be concluded that a large number of the 
Bankia in a block are directly exposed to the action of the toxic and that 
this and not diffusion of the toxic through the wood is responsible for the 
death of the Bankia. Why a solution toxic enough to cause the death of an 
individual is not strong enough to cause it to retract its siphons or to plug 
up its burrow is not understood. The greater resistance of Bankia in the 
wood over exposed Bankia is due, it would seem, not so much to a lesser con- 
tact with the toxic solution as to the favorable conditions attending their 
remaining in their natural environment. 


192 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


F. Reaction of the Digestive Tract of Bankia 


In view of the probability of digestion of the wood taking place in the 
intestinal tract of the Bankia, it seemed advisable to investigate the condi- 
tion of acidity or alkalinity in different parts of the digestive tract. In case 
a reaction one way or the other was found it might then be possible to im- 
pregnate wood with some substance which, ordinarily very stable, would be 
soluble or toxic when acted upon by the digestive fluids. 

The digestive tract of Bankia consists of a short esophagus and a tubular 
stomach into which opens a saccular cecum and which leads into a long 
looped intestine. Apparently the plankton on which the Bankia normally 
subsists is directed into the intestine while the wood borings are stored for 
a while in the cecum. It has long been a disputed question whether the 
Teredo digests the cellulose from the borings, but from a recent investiga- 
tion by Dore and Miller (3) there seems to be little doubt that this is the 
case, to some extent at least. Since the wood borings are stored in the 
czecum and whatever digestion occurs probably takes place there, this organ 
was selected for testing. It is easily obtained free from other tissues and 
can be ligated and excised with its contents intact. : 

The following indicators, sensitive to concentrations of the hydrogen 
ion ranging from 1 x 10-2 to 1 x 10-°, were used: methyl orange, congo red, 
litmus, neutral red, phenolphthalein. Various methods were employed, as 
follows: 

1. Caeca from six specimens were ligated, removed, and passed through 
several washes of distilled water. They were then opened in 25 cc. of dis- 
tilled water, and this solution was tested with the range of indicators. A 
blank of distilled water was run at the same time. This experiment was 
repeated a number of times, using different sizes of caeca in different con- 
ditions of repletion and emptiness. 

2. The caeca were ligated, excised, washed in distilled water, and opened 
under the different indicators under the microscope. 

3. Living Bankia were immersed in dilute indicators for 24 hours, washed 
in distilled water, and the caeca removed and examined. 

4. Blocks of wood containing Bankia were immersed for 3 days in sea 
water made neutral by hydrochloric acid. They were extracted from the 
wood and tested as in 2. | 

5. To neutral sea water was added congo red in 1-5,000 and 1-1,000 dilu- 
tions. Blocks containing Bankia were immersed in this for from 24 hours 
to 3 days, after which the Bankia were removed and examined. 

In none of these tests was there any sign of a change in the indicators. 
Under the microscope the caeca showed no color change with any of the 
indicators used. It was impossible to differentiate the solutions of czeecum 
contents from the distilled water blanks. Any reaction, if present, was so 
slight as to have little chemical importance. 


G. Effect of the Decrease in Salinity of Sea Water on Exposed Bankia 


A series of tests was made to determine the effects of a decrease in the 
salinity of sea water on Bankia which had been excavated from their bur- 
rows. Three Bankia were used for each test, ranging in size from 1 cm. to 
4 cm., and were distributed as nearly uniformly as possible. Solutions of 
decreasing salinity were made up by diluting ordinary sea water with soft 
artesian well water as follows: 


TOXICITY TESTS 193 


DILUTION PARTS NACL. 


SEA WATER/FRESH WATER’ PER 1000 hii 
Undiluted 28 All alive in 5 hrs. 1 out of 3 dead in 22 hrs. 
1 33 14 All alive in 22 hrs. 
1:2 9.3 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea 
water, all recovered 22 hrs. 
1:5 4.6 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea 


water, 5 out of 6 recovered in 2 hrs. 3 out 
of 6 dead in 22 hrs. 


1:6 4.0 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea 
water, 5 out of 6 recovered in 2 hrs:.,;-5-out 
of 6 dead in 22 hrs. 


aT 3.5 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea 
water, all recovered in 2 hrs., 6 out of 6 
dead in 22 hrs. 


1:9 2.8 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea 
water, 1 out of 6 recovered in 2 hrs., all 
dead in 22 hrs. 


At a salinity of 14 parts sodium chloride per 1,000 parts water, Bankia 
were not affected. At 9 parts per 1,000 down to 2.8 parts per 1,000 paralysis 
occurred within an hour. At 9 parts per 1,000, upon removal to ordinary 
sea water within an hour, there was a total recovery in 22 hours. Below 
that, recovery might take place upon removal to normal sea water but the 
time of survival was shortened. At 4.6 parts per 1,000, 50 per cent survived 
over 22 hours. At 4.0 parts per 1,000, only 16.7 per cent (1 out of 6) sur- 
vived, and below that salinity none survived over 22 hours. 

These tests on the effect of reduced salinities on exposed Bankia were 
conducted on so few specimens that no definite conclusions can be made. 
They are interesting, however, in that they correspond very closely to the 
results of Blum (2) on Teredo navalis, using a different method, in which 
he found that any salinity less than 4 parts per 1,000 was fatal. 


H. Effect of the Increase in the Hydrogen Ion Concentration on Teredo 
| and Limnoria 

In order to determine the effect of an increase in the hydrogen ion con- 
centration on wood boring organisms the following tests were performed: 

The hydrogen ion concentration of ordinary sea water was found by 
means of indicator solutions to be approximately 10-9 (pH-9). Five Lim- 
noria were placed in each of 8 dishes containing about 30 cc. of sea water 
and allowed to stand. The water was changed every 24 hours to prevent 
the growth of ciliates. Death or paralysis was determined as in previous 
experiments. A similar run was made using sea water which had been 
acidified with hydrochloric acid to a hydrogen-ion concentration of pH-?. 


NO. OF NO. DEAD PER CENT 
SPECIMENS IN 72 HRS. DEAD 


Normal sea water— 

Hydrogen ion concentration: between 

10-9 and 10-8 (pH-9 and pH-8)..... 40 4 10 
Acid sea water— 


Hydrogen ion concentration between 
10-2 and 10-8 (pH-? and pH-3)..... 40 34 85 


194 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


A similar series of experiments was carried out on exposed Bankia, using 
three for each test in about 200 cc. of water. 


NO. OF 
SPECIMENS RESULTS 


Normal sea water— 
Hydrogen ion concentration between 
T0-eand, [0-8 (ph -Yeands pelo). os 3 All alive after 6 hrs. 
Acid sea water— 


Hydrogen ion concentration between 
10-2 and 10-8 (pH-2 and pH-3).... 3 Lhr. sluggish; 3% hrs. siphons 
extended but no reaction; 
4 hrs. changed to ordinary 
sea water; no recovery. 


This increase in the hydrogen ion concentration of sea water was fatal. 
However, the water had been acidified to a point where it was approximately 
a N/100 solution of hydrochloric acid. This being so much more acid than 
pure water, imposed a severe test on the individuals. Additional experi- 
ments should be conducted where the hydrogen ion concentration is varied 
only from that of sea water to that of fresh water. 


I. Study of the Wood Boring Activities of Bankia 


In connection with toxicity test on Bankia in wood (Section C) it seemed 
desirable to obtain data on the nature of the wood boring activity of the 
organism, as well as the quantity of wood so consumed per 24 hours. Blocks 
of wood containing the specimens were put into standing sea water, prior to 
the running of the toxicity tests. 

It had been desired to collect and weigh the wood borings before, during, 
and after exposure as a measure of boring activity. This was done with a 
few blocks, enough to show that the amount of boring is roughly propor- 
tional to the number of siphons extruded. 

Borings were collected on weighed filter papers, at 24-hour periods, brought 
to as nearly constant weight as possible in desiccators, and weighed. A 
drying oven would have facilitated the process and made possible the col- 
lection of borings on all the blocks instead of the few that were done. 


NO. PAIRS OF SIPHONS WEIGHT OF BORINGS PER PAIR OF 
EXTRUDED BORINGS SIPHONS/24 HR. 
116 5.68 gms. .048 gms. 

94 2.91 gms. .031 gms. 
57 1.78 gms. .080 gms. 
57 .70 gms. .012 gms. 
23 .98 gms. .042 gms. 
67 5.10 gms. .076 gms. 
75 3.20 gms. .042 gms. 
29 2.40 gms. .088 gms. 
1238 5.10 gms. .041 gms. 
12 3.20 gms. .044 gms. 
56 4.60 gms. .082 gms. 
52 3.80 gms. .073 gms. 

Average .050 gms. 


TOXICITY TESTS 195 


This would indicate that the average weight of wood excavated per Bankia 
per day is of the order of 0.05 grams. While too much weight should not 
be placed on these figures, the results are remarkably uniform considering 
the conditions. 

During exposure to toxic solutions, no boring was carried on. The only 
material ejected was a small amount of amorphous black substance, differ- 
ing from the light brown or yellow wood borings. 


IV. CONCLUSIONS 


1. The toxicity of the various compounds is approximately the same for 
Limnoria, exposed Bankia, and Bankia embryos. 

2. As might be expected, Bankia incased in wood in its natural burrow is 
more resistant than when removed and exposed to the toxic agents. 

3. The materials which show marked toxicity on the exposed Bankia are 
also toxic to the borer incased in wood although a longer time is required to 
produce the lethal effect. 

4. In the exposed Bankia death appeared to be coincident with the ab- 
sence of response to the stimulus of the teasing needle and with one excep- 
tion no revival occurred on transference to fresh sea water. 

5. Indications are that during exposure to the action of any toxic, the 
wood-boring activities of Bankia are greatly decreased. 

6. Methyl orange, congo red, litmus, neutral red, and phenolphthalein 
when used as indicators to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the diges- 
tive tract of Bankia showed no color changes as solutions or in contents 
cells of the caeca. Any reaction is probably so slight as to be indetermin- 
able. 

7. Four and six-tenths parts sodium chloride per thousand is the lowest 
salinity to which Bankia may be exposed and recover. Death occurred at a 
salinity of 4.0 parts per thousand and below. 

8. Of 45 compounds tested, the following had the best general toxic value 
against both the teredine and crustacean type of borer, in the order named: 


Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide 
Phenyl arsenious oxide 
Mercuric oxide 

Mercuric chloride 
Mercuric arsenate 
Cuprous cyanide 

Cupric orthonitrobenzoate. 
Cuprous chloride 
Mercuric anilinate 
Mercuric benzoate 

Crystal violet 


V. RECOMMENDATIONS 


It is recommended that toxicity tests can be completed on compounds that 
have been tested in less than the four ways described in this report. 

It is suggested further that the same tests be conducted on various 
coal tar and water gas creosotes and creosote fractions as well as on fuel oil 
and any other substances which might be used as carriers for toxics in ser- 
vice tests. The tests should also be conducted on other compounds such as 
arsenic chloride, arsenic, and arsenious oxides, antimony compounds, iodine, 


196 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


picric acid and all materials included in the service test pieces exposed at 
Beaufort during the summer of 1923. 

A series of chemotropic experiments should also be made under the 
microscope using high dilutions of toxic solutions in capillary tubes and 
measuring their possible repellant action on freely swimming embryos. 
There are a number of substances which are not necessarily toxic but which 
might have a marked repellant effect. (8) 

Efforts should be made to contrive some method of testing compounds not 
soluble at 1-100,000 parts sea water. These compounds might be soluble in 
1-1,000,000 parts sea water, in which case they could be tested on vigorously 
swimming embryos for comparatively long periods of time. Or a minute 
quantity of the insoluble material might be introduced into a watch crystal 
containing embryos swimming in sea water and any repellant effect ob- 
served. 

Although the tests made on caeca seem conclusive that the reaction of 
the digestive tract is a negligible factor from a toxicity standpoint, the 
problem might be attacked again using a very large number of caeca and 
other indicators. At the same time that the caeca were being removed the 
livers could also be collected and the attempt made to confirm Harington’s 
experiments on cellulose-splitting enzymes in the liver. (8) The attempt 
should again be made to raise the embryos to the point of attachment to 
wood. Aside from biological considerations this is valuable from a toxicity 
standpoint as well in view of the very enlightening experiments that could 
be made upon the settling veliger. 

The question of the reaction of the compounds in sea water should also be 
investigated. 

The experiments upon the effect of reduced salinities on Bankia gould 
were of a preliminary nature and should be amplified, using sufficient ma- 
terial to establish a lethal salinity, and the same tests might well be made 
upon Teredo sigerfoosi and Limnoria. 


VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1. Sigerfoos—Natural History, Organiza- mendations Regarding Study of 
tion and Late Development of the Methods of Prevention of Their 
Téeredinidae, = Bull, Us 7s.) bureaw Attack, Report, No. E.A.C.D. 247. 
Bish 92% 

; MIA 6. Shackell—Comparative Toxicity of 

2. Blum—On the Effect of Low Salinity Coal Tar Cresote Distillates and of 
on Teredo navalis, Univ. of Cal. Pub. Individual Constituents for the 
in Zoology, Vol. 22, 4. Marine Wood Borer, pxylotrya, 

3. Dore and Miller—The Digestion of Proc. of American Woo reservers 
Wood by Teredo navalis, Univ. of Association, 1915. 

Cal. Pub. in Zoology, Vol. 22, 7. 7. Shackell—Marine MJBorers from the 

4. Bartsch—Monograph on the Ameri- Wood Preservers’ Standpoint, Proc. 
can. Shipworms, Bull. 122, Smith- of American Wood Preservers’ As- 
sonian Institute. sociation, 1916. 

5. Walker and MeQuaid— Digest of 8. Harington—Third (Interim) Report 
Available Information on Marine of the Committee of the Institute 


Borers and Preliminary Recom- of Civil Engineers, 1923. 


poe 


- CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 197 


APPENDIX II 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PAGE 

NITE det CN ary) Se ee eS clas kn wl woe ae o 8 ood 198 
eee CLG See Ore oie. acc s IONS 2. SEG. Oe. 198 
PTE PRUNENTAL, 6 cievic ccd coc S44 vo fncccceccuccces 199 
MA st POCOCLIYG. . 5. cco cca cee eve ces etascbvecs 199 
PMO UR EALUS: 20, ro: obs oonres inn a.ee. « Eb ES OE ACE 199 
eemmsosperimental Details. cic. 6s. 6 tlk. @wiefiiem ws 199 

Pepe ECONO TOCCGUTO 62. 6. ee ils bel cess vccewes 201 
EMER IN ata ts. otha LL AA Oe PUN LES 201 


APPENDIX II 


THE DESTRUCTION OF MARINE BORERS IN PILING 
BY THE ACTION OF CHLORINE GENERATED 


BY THE ELECTROLYSIS OF SEA WATER 
August 17, 19238 


By H. 8S. McQuaid 


ABSTRACT 


A process for the destruction of marine borers on piling, depending on 
the generation of chlorine around the piling by the electrolysis of sea water, 
has been investigated by the Chemical Warfare Service. 


Teredo infested blocks of wood were immersed in a jar of sea water, and 
this was electrolyzed by passing D. C. current, using carbon and iron elec- 
trodes. The number of Teredo remaining immediately after the test and 
for varying number of hours thereafter was compared with the original 
number. 


These tests show that this method of chlorine production has only a slight 
toxic effect on mature Teredos. 


I. INTRODUCTION 


The problem of protecting wooden marine structures against attack by 
marine borers, divides itself into two phases: 


1—The impregnation of new lumber to resist attack by these sea worms. 
2—The treatment of present marine structures to prevent further action. 


The method discussed in this report applies only to the second phase, the 
protection of existing construction. 


It is claimed that chlorine generated by the electrolysis of sea water in 
close proximity to piling has a toxic effect on the Teredo borers in the piling 
and also an inhibiting effect on the settling of embryo borers on the wood. 
Occasional treatment of the wooden structures by this method during the 
breeding season is claimed to keep the piling free from attack. 


The word Teredo in this report is used in a general sense, to designate 
teredine borers. ‘The actual species on which these tests were run was 
Bankia gouldi. These experiments were conducted by the Chemical War- 
fare Service, U. S. Army, at the laboratories of the Bureau of Fisheries, 
Beaufort, N. C. 


Il. THEORETICAL 


The process is described as follows: 

Carbon anodes are suspended in the sea water in proximity to the piling 
and are distributed evenly about the infested surface. Iron cathodes are — 
then suspended sufficiently removed from the anodes to prevent the mixing ~ 


198 


CHLORINE METHOD OF PROTECTION £99 


of the chlorine and caustic formed by the action. Each treatment should 
consist of 100 amperes direct current at approximately 20 volts per pile for 
one or two hours. Four treatments per season are recommended. 


Assuming the average pile to be one foot in diameter, and the length 
exposed to Teredo attack to be 30 feet, the area to be treated will be 94.3 
square feet. A current of 100 amperes will give 1.06 amperes per square 
foot of pile surface exposed. As one ampere hour generates 1.33 grams of 
chlorine, there will be 1.41 grams of chlorine generated per hour per square 
foot of pile surface exposed. 


II. EXPERIMENTAL 
A. First Procedure 


1. Apparatus—Teredo-infested blocks 4 inches square were immersed 
in sea water to a depth of 12 inches in a large wooden tank. Four graphite 
anodes, 44-inch square x 2 feet long, were suspended around the block, one 
for the middle of each side, %-inch from its surface and extending the 
length of the block. The four graphite rods were connected electrically to 
form the positive lead wire from the source of current. The cathode con- 
sisted of a 12-inch length of 1-inch iron pipe suspended in the sea water one 
foot away from the test block and anodes. 


The direct current was supplied by dry cells connected in series in suffi- 
cient number to deliver the proper current to the anodes. The circuit was 
provided with a direct current ammeter and a voltmeter in order to keep 
the electrical conditions constant. 


2. Experimental Details—Three tests were made following the outline 
given above. 


The number of Teredo in each block was determined before the treatment 
with chlorine.* After the test, the blocks were put into fresh sea water and 
the number of siphons appearing were counted at time intervals until it was 
certain there was no delayed action of the chlorine. 


In experiment No. 3, a 1-inch hole was bored through the center of the 
block, a single graphite anode was inserted, and the opening at the top filled 
in with putty to prevent the escape of chlorine. This was done in an at- 
tempt to secure a more uniform distribution of chlorine over the surface of 
the block. 


_ The conditions of these experiments are given in Table I, and the results 
in Table II. 


TABLE I 


lea Test No.1 Test No.2 Test No.3 
us a 38 40 87... 


MPEGTII—-“AMPCTES 2.2... 0c. cc esac esccees 2 4 4 
nes baste tees nese ess 5 10 15 
Current per square foot of block surface... 1.5 amps. 3.0 amps. 3.0 amps. 
Chlorine liberated per hour per square foot 
ERT a 0 al: a rr a 2.0 grams 4.0 grams 4,0 grams 
REELS Seco cs go oc Vide ccc cone es CaN 2 3 41% 


*The handling of the Teredos and the counts before and after the tests were the work 
of Miss Marjorie Allen, who was temporarily stationed at the Bureau of Fisheries 
Laboratory on the marine piling investigation. - ’ Se a 


200 GHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE — 


TABLE JI—EXPERIMENT 1 


TEREDO COUNT 
BEFORE TEST: 
18 15 14 13 iz 11 10 6 5 4, pe 
Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Hour 


Letiisides i465 9 10 9 Lge ee — 7 Pete 10 
2nd side... 94 117 90 96 97 95 90 1i4°"" 106 07 75 
3rd side... 6 12 11 10 Ue ogc a Re ee Py 13 
Total .. 108 188 111 115 118 ... .), nn 
AFTER TEST: 1 4 1 2 3 4 6 7 
Hour Hours’ Day Days Days Days Days Days 
eke SLOG. esr tee 1 8 8 10 6 12 5 11 
BUG. Sidewes oa5. 37 40 85 71 50 79 53 58 
OLG ) SIUC, vce ee 13 16 9 14 14 14 10 10 
Total ...... 51 64-102 95 70-105 68 79 


EXPERIMENT 2 
TEREDO COUNT 


BEFORE TEST: 13 12 11 7 6 5 1 

Days Days Days Days Days Days Hour 

Lstiside false . = 114 126 97 57 82 78 66 

and sidGic ce eee Pat nhs ee aie # Pees 10 

Total 2 eee. odie 76 

AFTER TEST: 1 1 2 3 4 6 7 
Hour Day Days Days Days Days Days 

Ibe sidecivty ka: 30 65 79 69 63 39 55 

Onde SIG G..2 ae 10 10 8 3 5 10 5 

Total ....... 40 5 87 72 68 49 60 


EXPERIMENT 3 
TEREDO COUNT 


BEFORE TEST: 12 11 10 9 8 1 
Days Days Days Days Days Hour* 

iM ASS Oe COR Paneer ane 12 fi a 8 16 10 

Bis SiC ce. ae ne 16 19 28 38 28 

Shit bg 0s Canin ereiew are 44 45 30 21 69 42 

WOtal Saw ec. cnet 78 68 56 57 123 80 


*After boring hole in block. 


AFTER TEST: 1 1 ve 4 5 
Hour Day Days Days Days 
lst? sidé 22 eee 6 3 4 6 9 
2nd side... cee eee 24 20 20 8 28 
Srd .side:s ce Gewese 18 25 27 12 28 


ee 
ws 


CHLORINE METHOD OF PROTECTION 201 


B. Second Procedure 


In order to get more positive information on the action of chlorine on 
Teredos, a different procedure was followed. The anode and cathode com- 
partments of the electrolysis apparatus were separate jars of about six liters 
capacity and connected by a glass siphon filled with sea water. Time of 
electrolysis was 4% hours, at a current of 2 amperes. 

Test No. 4. The Teredo were excavated from their burrows, care being 
taken to preserve them intact, and placed in the anode compartment while 
electrolysis of sea water was taking place. The following results were 
obtained: 

Control—5 out of 5 alive after 18 hours. 

Anode—3 out of 5 alive after 18 hours. 


Test No. 5. Limnoria were placed in both anode and cathode compart- 
ments while electrolysis was taking place. 


Control—5 out of 5 alive after 23 hours. 
Anode—3 out of 5 alive after 23 hours. 
Cathode—5 out of 5 alive after 23 hours. 


Observation has shown that the Teredo pulls in his siphons and closes up 
his burrows with his pallets very soon after the start of the chlorine gen- 
eration. The burrows are kept closed throughout the test, but the siphons 
are extended again a short time after being placed in fresh sea water. 


IV. CONCLUSIONS 


The results of these tests show that chlorine as generated and used in this 
process has only a slight toxic effect on mature Teredos. 


202 


II. 


III. 


ye 


CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


APPENDIX III 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION . 2.4.0.0 Ss cleus se eats een 


METHODS OF CONDUCTING TESTS... 2. : 29) Se eee 
A. Methods of Impregnation.: 772) 3 fee 
B. Method of Exposure... . 0. .0). .. e ee 
C. Sheathing .... «0.5 <<: + s- es ee 
D. Inspection of Test Pieces... ...2. 3.) 


Bi. TOxXieS 2... ck oe nee ead 8 oe eee 


EXPERIMENTAL DATA. .... . 2 « «sess eee 
A. Explanation of Table.......7. 22 32e5 eee 
B. Observations .........<«+s «ene g 


APPENDIX III 


PRESERVATION OF NEW WOODEN STRUCTURES 


FROM ATTACK BY MARINE BORERS 
January 8, 1924 


By H. 8. McQuaid 


ABSTRACT 


In the course of an investigation on the protection of marine structures 
against wood-boring organisms, a number of toxic substances were used to 
impregnate sections of railroad ties at Edgewood Arsenal which were then 
exposed to the attack of marine borers in the harbor at Beaufort, N. C., 
during the summer of 1923. 

Some experimental work was conducted to determine the best method of 
impregnation for given substances, and four adaptations of standard meth- 
ods were selected. Experiments were conducted to develop suitable impreg- 
nating mediums for different solid toxics. Satisfactory impregnation was 
secured in practically all cases. 

The toxics used include general substances known or claimed to be toxic 
to other forms of life, and in addition, certain chemical warfare compounds 
with favorable physical characteristics. Some of the impregnations were 
made and the exposures started before the systematic study of the toxicity 
of compounds to marine organisms was completed, so that many of the 
substances used were selected more or less at random. Of the substances 
tested, all showed some protection when compared with control blocks. 

A study of the cost of impregnation of various toxics was made. 

Acknowledgments are made for the cooperation of Mr. Chas. H. Hatsel, 
of the Bureau of Fisheries, and Mr. R. S. Perry, Jr., Chemist in Charge of 
the laboratory work of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, U. 8. N., at 
Beaufort, N. C. 


I. INTRODUCTION 


This report describes the experimental work of the Chemical Warfare 
Service in connection with the service tests on wood impregnated with 
various toxics and exposed to the attack of marine borers. It is in the 
nature of a progress report dealing with the test conducted since undertak- 
ing the investigation. 

The plan adopted was to treat short blocks of wood with a variety of 
materials in experimental impregnation apparatus at Edgewood Arsenal. 
Small blocks, 234 inches square by 12 inches long, were cut from oak and 
white pine railroad ties, and were seasoned in the laboratory before im- 
pregnation. Several methods of treatment were employed depending on 
the impregnant used. These blocks were then exposed to attack of shipworm 
and Limnoria in Beaufort Harbor, Beaufort, N. C. Untreated blocks were 


203 


204 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


exposed for comparison. All were regularly inspected from time to time, 
and in four to six months were removed for thorough examination. 


II. METHODS OF CONDUCTING TESTS 
A. Methods of Impregnation 


In impregnating the test blocks with the various toxics, four methods of 
impregnation were used: 


Vacuum, temperature, and pressure process. 
Boiling or open tank process. 

Vacuum and pressure process. 

Straight vacuum process. 


In the vacuum temperature and pressure process, the seasoned wooden 
blocks are put into an iron cylinder supplied with a steam coil. A vacuum 
of 28 inches is drawn on the cylinder and maintained for three hours. The 
cylinder is then filled with impregnating liquid which has been previously 
heated to about 65° C. Pressure is applied to the liquid in the cylinder 
by means of a hand force pump until it reaches a pressure of 175-200 
pounds per square inch and this pressure is maintained along with a tem- 
perature of 65° C. for three hours. The pressure is then released, the 
cylinder emptied, and the wooden blocks taken out. The accompanying 
photograph (Fig. 34), shows the arrangement of the equipment used in this 
process. The lower cylinder is the impregnation cylinder and is supplied 
with vacuum, pressure, and a steam coil. The upper cylinder is the storage 
and heating tank for the impregnating liquid. 

In the boiling process, a wooden block is put into an open top iron cylinder 
and covered over with the impregnating vehicle. Then the contents of the 
cylinder are heated up to about 150° C. for three hours and the wood is 
removed and immediately plunged into a cylinder, containing the impreg- 
nating liquid at room temperature, where it is allowed to remain over night. 

In the vacuum and pressure process, the wood is placed in a closed cylin- 
der and a vacuum of 28 inches of mercury applied for three hours. Then 
the cylinder is filled with impregnating liquid and a pressure of 40 pounds 
per square inch is put on the cylinder for three hours. 

When the straight vacuum process was used, the block was put into a 
vacuum cylinder, the air exhausted in the cylinder and block, and the im- 
pregnant run in to cover the block of wood. After standing for 30 minutes 
to 3 hours, the solution was run out and the piece removed. 

The boiling or open tank process was used wherever possible, since a 
minimum amount of impregnating liquid can be used and very good im- 
pregnations may be effected. The vacuum and pressure process was used on 
all water and solvent solutions, especially ammoniacal solutions, where heat- 
ing was detrimental and the boiling temperature was too low for the open 
tank method. 

All four of these methods are adaptations of standard large scale im- 
pregnating practice and it is believed that even better penetration could be 
secured on a large scale than was obtained on the small blocks. 


B. Method of Exposure 


Every toxic impregnation was made at least in duplicate so that one 
block could be sheathed with a %-inch thickness of untreated wood while 
the other block was directly exposed. This was for the purpose of determin- 


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206 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


ing whether the various toxics acted on the mature Teredos in the same 
manner as on the embryo Teredos. 

The test pieces were exposed in the following manner. There is a test 
rack in the form of a small skeleton pier in the 300-foot channel which runs 
north and south between the eastern shore of the town of Beaufort and 
Pivers Island, where the Bureau of Fisheries laboratory is situated. The 
rack is approximately 600 feet long and 30 feet wide, consisting of three 
rows of piling, the piles being spaced 20 feet apart longitudinally and 15 
feet laterally, and runs north and south, parallel to the shore. The water 
has a depth of about five feet at low tide at the inner row of piles. A cable 
was strung from the southern and along the inner four sections of the rack 
in such a position that it was practically level with the water at low tide, 
and the pieces were attached to the cable with galvanized iron wire by 
means of a screw eye in the end of each piece. The blocks were spaced 
about four inches apart and an untreated control block was placed at inter- 
vals of every ten or less test pieces. It was not known whether the fact that 
the blocks were allowed to swing on the cable would have any effect on the 
intensity of marine borer attack, but the severe attack indicated on the 
blank control pieces proved that this was not a factor, and incidentally 
showed that the toxic area created by the vicinity of impregnated pieces was 
not sufficiently great to have any noticeable effect on the intensity of attack 
on the unimpregnated controls. 


C. Sheathing 


When the first test pieces were put into the water, every alternate piece 
was completely encased in a closed box 14-inch thick. This method proved 
unsatisfactory due to swelling of the outside container away from the en- 
cased test piece. This produced spaces between the test pieces and the 
sheathing too great for a Teredo to span. 

The above method was modified on later pieces by having the sheathing 
screwed directly to the sides of the test pieces. This proved unsatisfactory 
due to swelling, splitting, and warping of the casing caused by a lack of 
allowance for expansion. 

Finally, all previous sheathings were removed and each test block was 
sheathed on two sides with a board 14-inch thick nailed to the test piece. 
This proved quite satisfactory and the presence of exposed toxic surfaces 
close by had no effect on the entrance of Teredos into the sheathing. 


D. Inspection of Test Pieces 


Inspections of all the test pieces in the water at those times were made 
on July, 9, 1923, July 21, 1928, August 15, 1923, and November 27, 1923, 
which probably marks the close of the Teredo breeding season. The inspec- 
tion consisted in examining the test samples for attack and the sheathed 
pieces for attack underneath the sheathing. In the final examination, all 
pieces which showed the slightest evidence of attack were split open and 
carefully inspected, note being made of the extent of damage, faulty im- 
pregnation, etc. 


III. MATERIALS USED 
A. Wood Samples 


All the samples of wood used for the test pieces were cut from white pine 
railroad ties supplied by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, except in one 


PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES 207 


series (Series No. 40) in which the blocks were cut from oak ties obtained 
from the same source. The ties were partly seasoned. The blocks were 
stored in an electric oven at 55° C. for about two weeks before being 
used. As a result the wood was quite dry when treated with the various 
impregnating materials. 


B. Toxics 


1. Aczol—This was a commercial wood preserving compound stated to 
consist of 8.5 per cent ammonia, 2 per cent zinc, 2 per cent copper, and 7.5 
per cent carbolic acid. It is used in the ratio of 12 parts of aczol to 100 
parts of water. 


2. Cupric Oxide—This material was dissolved in strong ammonia to 
saturation and then diluted to 10 per cent ammonia with water. 


3. Cupric Carbonate—(Chandler Patent, U. S. No. 1,388,513). This 
solution was made up by mixing a concentrated solution of copper sulphate 
with a solution of 8.5 per cent sodium carbonate and 1.5 per cent sodium 
bicarbonate, so that the resulting solution contained 0.6 per cent of copper 
sulphate. This solution, after standing from 2 to 24 hours, precipitated in- 
soluble crystals of cupric sodium carbonate. If the wood was impregnated 
with this material inside of 2 hours after the making up of the solution, 
the insoluble copper salt was precipitated in the pores of the wood. 


4. Copper Stearate in Carbon Tetrachloride—Copper stearate was 
formed by precipitating a solution of sodium stearate with copper sulphate 
solution. After washing and drying, it was dissolved in carbon tetra- 
chloride. 


5. Cupric Carbonate—This material was precipitated in the wood by 
impregnating with a 5 per cent solution of copper sulphate, drying and fol- 
lowing with an impregnation of 5 per cent sodium carbonate solution. 


6. Cupric Arsenite in Ammonia Solution—Cupric arsenite was dis- 
solved to saturation in strong ammonia solution, then diluted to 8 per cent 
ammonia solution with water. 


7. Cupric Ferricyanide in Ammonia Solution—It was made up in the 
same manner as copper arsenite. 


8-9. Mercury Stearate in Paraffine—Both ingredients were heated un- 
til they were melted and stirred together. 


10. Cupric Hydroxide in Ammonia Solution—The cupric hydroxide 
_was dissolved to saturation in strong ammonia water and then diluted to 
8 per cent ammonia. 


11. Rubber in Benzene—Ceylon crépe rubber was cut into small 
squares and dissolved in benzene. 


12. Crystal Violet and Copper Tannate—The wood was impregnated 
with a solution of crystal violet and copper acetate. After drying, it was 
again impregnated with a 5 per cent tannic acid solution to mordant the dye. 


13. Ferric Ferricyanide—This compound was formed from a mixed 
- solution of sodium ferricyanide and ferric chloride. 


14. Newport Direct Sky Blue—The dye was dissolved in a 2 per cent 
sodium carbonate solution. 


7 


> <a 


208 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


15. Newport Direct Black R.W.—Same as for direct sky blue. 


16. Copper—The wood was studded with small pieces of 16 gauge 
copper: Wire on 14-inch center over its entire surface, or ordinary copper 
carpet tacks were nailed on %%-inch centers over the entire surface. 


17. Creosote—The creosote had the following characteristics: 
1.0 per cent water. 
0.18 per cent residue insoluble in benzene. 
Density at 38° C.—1.117. 
Cut at 210° C.—2.5 per cent. 
Cut at 210-235° C.—4.5 per cent. 
Cut at 235-315° C.—19.0 per cent—density at 38° C.—1.05. 
Cut at 315-355° C.—18.5 per cent—density at 38° C.—1.12. 
Cut above 355° C.—54.5 per cent. 
Coke residue—8.3 per cent. 


18. Copper Resinate in Creosote—Copper resinate was prepared by 
saponifying resin with caustic soda and precipitating with copper sulphate 
solution. It was washed, dried, and dissolved in hot creosote. 


19. Diphenylaminechlorarsine (D.M.) in Creosote—The diphenylamine- 
chlorarsine was dissolved in the creosote. 


20. Cupric Orthonitrobenzoate in Creosote—The salt was dissolved 
in the creosote. 


21. Barium Phenocresylate in Creosote—A product called “Toxall” 
from Toch Brothers, dissolved in creosote. 


22. Copper and Mercury Soaps in Pine Tar Oil—These test blocks were 
furnished by a commercial company. 


23. Copper Benzoate in Creosote—The salt was dissolved in the creo- 
sote. 


24. Mercuric Benzoate in Creosote—The salt was dissolved in creo- 
sote. 


25. Diphenylarsenious Oxide (D.A. oxide) in Creosote—The diphenyl- 
arsenious oxide was dissolved in heated creosote. 


26. Mercuric Resinate in Creosote—Prepared in the same manner as 
in No. 18. 


27. Chlorinated Cellulose—The wood was evacuated and then treated a 


number of times with chlorine gas with a vacuum treatment between each 
gassing. 


28. Rubber Latex—This is the colloidal suspension of rubber in water 
as it comes from the rubber tree. It contains about 38 per cent rubber and 
a little ammonia to preserve the colloidal condition. 


29. Copper Resinate in Creosote—Same as No. 18. 


30-33. Sulphur—The wood was impregnated with melted sulphur. The 


samples were furnished by the Union Sulphur Co., 33 Rector Street, New 
York City. 


34. Copper Stearate in Benzene Rubber Solution—The copper stearate 
was dissolved in benzene and mixed with the benzene rubber solution. 


PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES 209 


35. Mercuric Stearate in Creosote—Prepared in the same manner as 
No. 18. 


36. Copper Hydroxide in Rubber Latex—The copper hydroxide was dis- 
solved in ammonia solution mixed with the rubber latex solution. 


37. Copper Stearate in Creosote—Prepared similarly to No. 18. 


38. Mercury Anilinate in Creosote—Mercury anilinate was prepared 
by treating aniline in water with mercuric chloride solution precipitating 
mercury anilinate. 


39. Mercuric Stearate in Benzene Rubber Solution—Same as in No. 34. 


40. Methylene Blue and Copper Tannate—Oak wood was impregnated 
with a 1 per cent methylene blue solution and after drying it was impreg- 
nated again with a saturated solution of copper acetate, which probably 
combined with the tannic acid in the wood to form insoluble copper tannate. 


41. Rubber Latex Vulcanized—The wood was impregnated with rub- 
ber latex dried and treated with sulphur chloride solution to vulecanize the 
rubber. 


42. Petroleum Fuel Oil—Commercial fuel oil. 


43. Mercury Resinate in Fuel Oil—The mercury resinate was dis- 
solved in the fuel oil. 


44. Copper Resinate in Fuel Oil—Same method of preparation ag in 
No. 48. 


45. Chlorinated Paraffine in Carbon Tetrachloride—Paraffine was 
chlorinated to 60 per cent chlorine content and dissolved in carbon tetra- 
chloride. 


46. Diphenylarsenious Oxide (D.A. oxide) in Fuel Oil—The diphenyl- 
arsenious oxide was dissolved in the fuel oil. 


47. Diphenylaminechlorarsine (D.M.) Paraffine Solution—Dipheny!- 
aminechlorarsine was dissolved in the liquid used in No. 45, chlorinated 
paraffine and carbon tetrachloride. 


48. Diphenylchlorarsine in Fuel Oil—Diphenylchlorarsine was dis- 
solved in the fuel oil. 


49. Phenylarsenious Oxide in Carbon Tetrachloride—The phenylar- 
senious oxide was dissolved in the solvent. 


50. Diphenylchlorarsine (D.A.) in Paraffine—The diphenylchlorarsine 
was dissolved in the melted paraffine. 


51. Phenylarsenious Oxide in Creosote—Phenylchlorarsine oxide was 
dissolved in hot creosote. 


52. Diphenylchlorarsine in Creosote—The material was dissolved in 
creosote. ) 


53. Silica Gel—The wood was impregnated with a mixed solution of 
equal volumes of 10 per cent solutions of sodium silicate and hydrochloric 
acid and the solution was allowed to get into the pores of the wood, thereby 
impregnating the wood with silica. 


210 - CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


IV. EXPERIMENTAL DATA 
A. Explanation of Table 


The table which follows summarizes the experimental data obtained on 
the exposure tests made at Beaufort, N. C., during the summer of 1923. 
The materials used, the methods of impregnation, and the method of ex- 
posure have been described. The results of these exposure tests are given 
in Table I. It will be recalled from previous descriptions that all blocks 
used in these tests were white pine, with the exception of Test No. 40, in 
which an oak block was used. 


The following is an explanation of expressions used in this table: 


1. Method of Impregnation 


A refers to the vacuum, temperature and pressure process. 
B refers to the straight vacuum process. 

C refers to the vacuum and pressure process. 

D refers to the boiling or open tank process. 


2. Condition of Samples—The condition of the blocks after exposure 
is described either as “O. K.,” or attacked. By “O. K.” is meant that no 
shipworm or Limnoria attacks were made on the block. In the other case, 
the attack may be slight or serious, as noted. Where the expression (1) 
appears, it indicates that the attack was limited to Limnoria. 


3. Impregnating Costs—The table lists only the material costs on the 
toxics tested. As practically all the materials in practice would be im- 
pregnated into the wood by means of the present day methods, total costs 
can be obtained by adding a charge for impregnating to the materials 
costs given. 

The following costs are given on creosoted piling (Weiss, ‘““The Preserva- 
tion of Structural Timber,” pp. 185-186) : 

Forty-foot pile treated to 16 pounds per cubic foot and driven in place 
cost $14.75 per pile. 

With a treatment of 22 pounds per cubic foot, the cost is $16.50 per pile. 

This is based on the cost of peeling per cubic foot—1 to 244¢. 

With preservatives at 9c per gallon (834 pounds) and a treatment of 16 
pounds per cubic foot, the cost of treatment per cubic foot is 31% to 6c. 

In Nos. 5, 12, 40 and 41, the impregnation costs must be doubled because 
they make use of a double impregnation. ; 

In Nos. 4, 11, 34, 39, 45, 47 and 49, the material costs should be credited 
with a certain percentage of solvent recovery for which they have not been 
credited. 


B. Observations . 
1. Cupric Oxide Impregnation—No. 2 received a poor impregnation. 


2. Dye Impregnation—Nos. 12, 14 and 15, (dyed pieces) showed little 
or no penetration of dye, but good penetration of water. This showed that 
the wood fiber took out most of the dye at the surface of the wood and 
allowed very little to penetrate into the interior. Nos. 14 and 15 gave pro- 
tection until the color bleached out and then they were attacked by Teredos. 


3. Mercury Stearate Impregnation—No. 8 received a rather poor 
impregnation on account of the decomposition of the mercury stearate, due 


PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES 211 


to continued heating. This showed that the mercury soaps cannot stand 
high temperatures for any length of time. 


4. Creosote Impregnation—No. 17-1, the attacked creosote piece as 
shown in the photographs, Nos. 3819, 3820, received a faulty impregnation, 
as a Strata throughout the length of one corner received no creosote. The 
Teredo attacked the piece in this unimpregnated portion, which was all 
heart wood. 


5. Rubber Latex Impregnation—In the rubber latex impregnations, 
some of the latex enters the wood, but a portion is filtered out by the wood 
and forms a thick viscous layer on the surface. 


6. Chlorinated Cellulose—No. 27. The fact that the test pieces 
treated with chlorine were missing indicates that the action of chlorine 
impaired the mechanical properties of the wood and made it rather soft and 
friable. It is quite possible these pieces were in such poor mechanical con- 
dition that they were pulled off the hooks by the mere action of the water. 


7. Sulphur Impregnation—The sulphur impregnated pieces disclosed 
Teredos of a greater size than in any of the others, although the number 
was not so great as in the untreated pieces. 


8. Control Blocks—In general, in comparison with the untreated bait 
pieces, all the impregnated pieces showed at least some deterrent action to 
marine borer attack. _In no case were any of the treated pieces as badly 
attacked as the bait pieces. 


In addition to the compounds in Table I, a test was made using “‘Para- 
var Varnish,” a commercial compound supplied by one of the large rubber 
companies. This is said to be a self-curing rubber cement in which benzine 
is used as the vehicle. It was originally suggested for use as protection for 
concrete marine structures, and in this connection was claimed to have a 
decided penetrative effect. A test piece painted with eight coats of the 
material was exposed at Beaufort with the first pieces sent down. At the 
first inspection, the piece seemed unattacked, but at the final examination, 
the piece was as badly attacked as the unimpregnated control pieces. This 
indicates that so long as the material remains intact as a surface coat, it 
probably gives protection, but just as soon as the coat becomes at all im- 
perfect, due to the action of the sea water, the protection is negative. The 
conclusion is, that applied in this way, Paravar is useless as a preservative 
for marine piling. 

The accompanying photograph (Fig. 35) shows a longitudinal cross sec- 
tion of several of the test pieces after exposure. As will be noted, block 
No. 4 in this photograph is a straight creosote impregnation showing 
streaky impregnation in the heart wood, and slight Teredo attacks in this 
portion. Details of this piece are shown in the photograph (Fig. 36). 


C. Discussion of Data 


1. Cost of Impregnation—On account of the differences in degrees of 
impregnation of the test pieces, the most logical method of comparing costs 
upon the different materials used would be to figure all costs upon an equal 
degree of impregnation. In the following table this has been done. An 
average figure of 20 pounds of preservative per cubic foot of piling was 


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CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


212 


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PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES 213 


taken. The material costs of the toxics are the same as those roe in Table 
I, and are based on current prices. 

On costs on No. 4, an 80 per cent yield on solvent recovery is assumed. 

On Nos. 36 and Al, an average figure of 5 pounds of preservative per 
cubic foot of piling is used instead of 20 pounds, as rubber latex is more 
difficult to use as an impregnant. No costs are given for No. 21, as the 
preservative was not prepared here. 

No. 6, labor cost, is low, and is figured on the possible use of an air pres- 


Sure gun, or some similar means for imbedding the copper particles in the 
wood. 


Fig. 36—DETAIL oF ATTACK ON CREOSOTED TEST PIECE 


2. Toxicity of Impregnants Tested—While Table II gives a rough esti- 
mate of relative costs, they are by no means final. The primary purpose 
of these tests was to distinguish between toxic and non-toxic compounds. 
Consequently, a high percentage of toxic compound was used in most 
instances, even though it is quite possible that a smaller quantity would be 
equally effective. In the creosote impregnations, most of the mixtures were 
made with a 5 per cent toxic content. With the more expensive toxics, like 
diphenylaminechlorarsine, diphenylchlorarsine, and their oxides, a 5 per 
cent content would render the preservative very expensive. But, on account 
of their high toxic qualities, it is quite likely that a percentage much less 
than 5 per cent would produce lethal effect. In these cases, the price of the 
preservative would approach that of the preservatives containing cheaper 
but less toxic compounds. 


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217 


PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES 


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(panuiuoy) JT ATAV EL 


CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


218 


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(panurjuoy) [ FIEVL 


PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES PAN, 


In the case of crystal violet and methylene blue, the impregnation costs 
are quite low. These, however, require a double impregnation. Another 
disadvantage is that the dyes did not penetrate deeply into the wood, al- 
though the water penetrated to the core of the pieces and it might be only 
a question of time before the piece would be severely attacked. 


The rubber latex pieces showed some penetration, but a large part of the 
latex formed a thick film over the surface of the wood and prevented fur- 


TABLE II. Cost OF IMPREGNATION 


Labor Cost of 
Average Impregna- 
of 20 Lbs. tion 6c. per 
per Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft.per 
Material MImpreg- Total 


Cost nation Cost 
ES eMC UED SOLES VivGs vive esc eee eee nee tes $0.44 $0.06 $0.50 
a 0.38 0.06 0.44 
4—Copper stearate—CCl ............. ccc eeecees 0.46 0.06 0.52 
5—Double impregnation ae Seay Rohe sere 8 1.60 0.12 L72 
10—Copper hydroxide in 8% ammonia............. 0.80 0.06 0.86 
12—Crystal violet copper tannate (double imp.)..... 0.21 Oni2 0.33 
Pet ET BOLUQOCUG isl. ccs ce pad eda cbc bc dieeseee 0.96 0.10 1.06 
DE TIT CIEOSOLE 2. cc kt ccc ct ee een saee LUPAL 0.06 LOH 
20—Copper ortho nitro benzoate in creosote........ 0.71 0.06 0.77 
21—Barium phenocresylate (Toxall) in creosote.... Tee hase AR; 
22—Copper and mercury soaps in pine tar oil....... 1.02 0.06 1.08 
23—Copper benzoate in creosote...........-sseeeee body 0.06 1.28 
24—Mercury benzoate in creosote ............2.065 151 0.06 1.57 
25—D, A. oxide in creosote © ..... ec ee eee ee eee 1.66 0.06 jhy 
26—Mercury resinate in creosote ...............005 0.93 0.06 0.99 
29—Copper resinate in creosote ............. eens 0.52 0.06 0.58 
35—Mercury stearate in creosote ............e ee eee 0.91 0.06 0.97 
36—Copper hydroxide—4% NH.OH in 30% rubber 
eee eg Py. 2 ele pi gudic: oman wleuele’ dd bletayers 0.62* 0.06 0.68 
37—Copper stearate in creosote.........ceeeeeeees 0.63 0.06 0.69 
388—Mercuric anilinate in creosote.............06-: 1.06 0.06 1 Palys 
40—Methylene Blue—copper tannate .............. 0.48 0.12 0.60 
41—Vulcanized rubber latex—sulphur chloride...... 0.75* 0.12 0.87 


*Based on 5 lb. average. 


ther impregnation. These pieces showed a decided increase in the tensile 
strength of the wood. 


In the test pieces using creosote as a carrier, it is quite possible that 
immunity is obtained from the presence of the creosote alone. The use of 
sheathing was intended in these cases to show an improvement over creosote 
alone. It is fairly well established that the shipworm, after attaining some 
growth, is able to bore from untreated wood into creosote treated wood, and 
withstand its toxic properties.* In the above cases, if the shipworm were 


*American Wood Preservers’ Association—19—‘“Toxicity of Various Creosote Fractions 
on Xylotrya.”—F. L. Shackell. 


220 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 


killed in crossing over into the treated piece from the sheathing, it would 
definitely show the toxic effect of the dissolved compound. Due to the 
trouble with sheathing, no data are as yet available on this point. 


After the final inspection, on November 27, 1923, the following test 
pieces were left on the cable to undergo exposure until attack next spring: 
1-1, 5-1, 6-1, 10-1, 18-1, 19-2, 20-2, 21-2, 23-1, 24-2, 25-8, 26-2, 29-2, 35-2, 
37-2, 38-2, 40-2, 42-1, 42-2, 43-1, 48-2, 44-1, 44-2, 45-1, 45-2, 46-1, 46-2, 46-3, 
A7-1, 47-2, 48-1, 48-2, 48-3, 48-4, 49-1, 49-2, 49-3, 50-1, 50-2, 51-1, 51-2, 51-3, 
52-1, 52-2, 52-3, 53-1. 

All these blocks are sheathed on two sides, and some of this sheathing 
already contains shipworms, although on the date of the inspection they 
had not crossed from the sheathing to the block. 


V. CONCLUSIONS 


1. All of the impregnated pieces used gave better protection than the 
unimpregnated pieces. 

2. The length of exposure was not sufficient to justify too optimistic 
conclusions, but it is indicated that there are several specific toxics which 
will give protection through long periods of time. 

3. Additional work is necessary before final conclusions can be drawn 
and the correct estimate of cost of piling protection given. 

4. Satisfactory impregnation was secured on the test pieces with prac- 
tically all the toxics used. 


5. It should be possible to duplicate these results readily on large scale 
apparatus. 


6. In the few cases where impregnation was thin or streaky, it was 
probably due to the fact that the outer surface of impregnated wood was 
heart wood, which would not be the case with piling. 

7. To overcome this objection, it is planned to use eight-foot fence posts 
in long time service tests. 

8. Test pieces impregnated with molten sulphur did not afford pro- 
tection. 

9. Five per cent of specific toxics, such as D.M., D.A., their oxides, 
phenylarsenious oxide, etc., using creosote as a carrier, seemed to afford 
definite protection. 

10. It is probable that the percentage of specific toxics in these cases 
can be reduced, possibly to as low as one per cent. 


CHAPTER X 


HARBOR REPORTS 


The information presented in the reports on individual harbors and 
groups of harbors has been collected from many sources and assembled so 
that, even at the expense of some repetition of other parts of the report, all 
available data concerning a given locality might be found in the section of 
the report devoted to that locality. 


The descriptions of the physical characteristics of the harbors are mainly 
based on “U. S. Coast Pilots” furnished by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
where these were available. Other information has been furnished by rep- 
resentatives of other government departments or by harbor engineers fully 
conversant with conditions. 


The history of attacks by marine borers and the service records of vari- 
ous structures and materials have been secured from the Navy, Army, rail- 
roads, harbor boards and others, who were in possession of authentic 
records. 


The records of tests and investigations are compiled from the reports of 
the biologists who inspected the test blocks and timber, and from other rec- 
ords of the committee. 


A draft of these reports was submitted in each case to the District En- 
gineer of the U. S. Engineer Departments, the Superintendent of Light- 
houses, and in case of harbors in which Navy Yards or Naval Stations were 
located, the reports were passed upon by the Public Works Officers. All 
reports were submitted to the Engineers of Maintenance, Chief Engineers, 
General Managers or Vice-presidents of the railroads cooperating with the 
committee and having property in the various harbors, and to the engineers 
for Harbor Commissioners where such organizations existed, and the sug- 
gestions of these engineers were adopted. It is therefore evident that these 
reports represent not only the results of the studies of this committee but 
also those of the engineers best qualified to express an opinion in each case. 


The maps were made from charts furnished by the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey, and were prepared in the drafting room of the Western Electric 
Company, who contributed this service. 


In addition to the biologists, Mr. Clapp and Dr. Miller, it is desired to 
express the gratitude of the Committee to the engineers whose assistance 
and cooperation made possible the compilation of this information. 


MAINE COAST 
Description 


The Maine coast is a region of ledges and boulders, very much broken by 
numerous bays and rivers, many of which are excellent harbors. Harbors 
of importance, either commercially or for refuge, are: Little River, Machias 
Bay, Narraguagas Bay, Winter Harbor, Bar Harbor, Southwest Harbor, 
Bass Harbor, Castine, Belfast, Camden, Rockport, Rockland, Port Clyde, 
Boothbay, Bath and Portland. 

The prevailing winds are southwesterly during the summer and northerly 


221 


222 HARBOR REPORTS 


during the winter. At all seasons the heaviest gales are generally from 
northeastward or eastward. The ice formation is generally local, rapidly 
increasing during calms or light winds when not prevented by tidal currents. 

Lubec (Fig. 37), is situated on the western side of Lubec Narrows, a nar- 
row strait connecting it with Mulholland Point. The channel has been 


NAUTICAL MILES 


fe) 
YARDS 


19000 2000 3000 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
LUBEC CHANNEL 
MAINE 


Fic. 37 


MAINE COAST 223 


dredged to a width of from 250 to 400 feet and a depth of 12 feet and has 
strong tidal currents, the flood attaining, during Spring tides, a velocity of 
6 knots and the ebb 8 knots per hour. 

Cutler (Fig. 38), a village on the north side of Little River, is the head- 
quarters of many small fishing boats. Little River harbor has 12 to 30 feet 
of water, is sheltered from all winds and never obstructed by ice. 


N 


NAUTICAL MILES. 


1 t ' oO ’ 2a 
a ck nas YARDS 


1000.—« 1000 2000 3000 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
CUTLER HARBOR 
MAINE 1925 


Fic. 38 


Crabtree Ledge (Fig. 39), is on the west side of the entrance to Sullivan 
Harbor, a northwest extension of Frenchman Bay. 

Fort Point (Fig. 40), is on the west side at the entrance to Penobscot 
River. During extreme winters ice forms solidly across the entrance. The 
average range of tide is 10.3 feet. 

Portland Harbor (Fig. 41), is by far the most important harbor on the 
Maine coast. The following data are taken from ‘“‘The Port of Portland, 


224 HARBOR REPORTS 


Maine” prepared by the Statistical Division, Board of Engineers for Rivers 
and Harbors: 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION.—Portland, Me., is at the westerly end of Casco 
Bay and is the most northerly and easterly large port on the Atlantic coast 
of the United States. The harbor is 3% miles from the open ocean. 


NAUTICAL MILES 


YARDS 
10090 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
SULLIVAN HARBOR 
MAINE 


Fia. 39 


MAINE COAST 225 


The harbor, considered as a whole, is made up of three parts: 


(a) The main or inner harbor, known as Front Harbor, lying south and 
east of the peninsula, and having a water front of about 2% miles; 


(b) Fore River, also on the southerly side of the peninsula, extending 
westerly from the main harbor (from which it is separated by Portland 
Bridge), for about 114 miles; 


(c) Back Cove, which lies on the northerly side of the peninsula, nearly 
landlocked, approximately circular in form, is about 1 mile in diameter, 
having a narrow bottlenecked entrance. It has a water front of about 1% 
miles. 


The total water frontage of the harbor, inclusive of South Portland, is 
about 8% miles. 


The outer harbor of Portland, which is used as a harbor of refuge, is 
situated behind the islands of Casco Bay. The main ship channel to Port- 
land Harbor is the deep-water entrance between Cushing Island on the east 
and the main shore at Portland Head on the west. There are several other 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
BELFAST BAY 
MAINE i923 


NAUTICAL MILES 
1 2 
YARDS 


19000 2000 3P00 4900 5,000 


Fig. 40 


226 


HARBOR REPORTS 


entrances between the islands used by local vessels or those towing from 
Portland to different points in Casco Bay and its estuaries. 


TIDES.—The mean range of tide is 8.9 feet, and the spring range 10.2 feet. 
In 1909 there was a tide of 13.3 feet and tides of 11 feet are not uncommon. 
The effect of strong winds, in combination with the regular tidal action, 
may at times cause the water to fall below the plane of reference of the 
chart as much as 4.5 feet. 


Tidal currents exist principally near the bridges, but their velocity never 
exceeds 2 miles per hour. At Portland Light Vessel the tidal current is 
weak, being on an average less than 1%, knot; during October, November 
and December there is a southerly set of about 14 knot. 


Ice seldom obstructs navigation and when it does it is only for a limited 
period. The channel to the wharves is kept open by steamers and tugs. 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
PORTLAND HARBOR 
MAINE 1923 


NAUTICAL MILES 


MAINE COAST 221 


Marine Borers 

Past History—Damage done by Limnoria has been reported to have oc- 
curred to the Bear Island Lighthouse Depot Wharf, Northeast Harbor, 
Maine, and the Little Island Lighthouse Depot Wharf. 

In May, 1923, a wharf at Lubec collapsed. The cause was said to be the 
jamming of the ice against the building and lifting it from its foundation, 
but an inspection of the pile supports showed that many of them were badly 
eaten by Limnoria. 

The outer end of one of the Grand Trunk Railway wharves at Portland 
failed in 1922 on account of the destruction of the piles by Limnoria. 
(Fig. 42). 

The shipworm is also known to be present at Portland, but no considerable 
damage has been reported. 


Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as shown in the 
following table: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


! Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 

Lubec—Boat Landing.......... L-1-1.....] Lighthouse Service...} May 5, 19238 OF7 6.2 

Cutler—Little River........... L-1-2.....| Lighthouse Service...} May 1, 1923 1.0 9.0 

Crabtree Ledge—Light......... 1-3... 0 Lighthouse Service...| May 1, 1923 1.0 8.5 

Fort Point—Wharf............. L-1-4..... Lighthouse Service...| April 28, 1923 1.0 8.0 

Portland—Cross Shed No. 1..... 6-4 b= ee Grand Trunk Railway| May 30, 1923 10.0 18.0 

Scarboro—Bridge No. 117, seven 
miles north of Pine Pt........ BM-12...| Boston & Maine R.R.| July 21, 1922 *0.0 1.0 

Old Orchard—Bridge No. 42....| BM-11...] Boston & Maine R.R.} July 11, 1922 |*Board out] of water at 

low tide. 

York Harbor—Bridge No. 236 #1 .0 14.0 
one-half mile east of Seabury +}/ BM-9....| Boston & Maine R.R.|} July 20, 1922 { : : 
Wig 440, Stee ns 13.0 =_ 

Kennebunkport (Fig 43)........ BM-10. ..}| Boston & Maine R.R.| July 10, 1922 0.0 5.0 


*Placed in horizontal position. 

tChanged to vertical position December 15, 1922. 

L-1-1—The first Limnoria was found on the second block, removed June 
16, and from this time to October a number of specimens of Limnoria 
varying from 100 down to 20 were found. While not in great numbers, the 
burrows of these animals were unusually large and deep. The last test 
block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. 

L-1-2—A few specimens of Limnoria only were found on each block re- 
moved and some Bryozoa appeared on the blocks removed after August 1. 
The last test block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. 

L-1-3—A few specimens of Limnoria were found on all blocks removed 
after July 1, and most blocks after this time showed traces of Balanus 
and Bryozoa (Lepralia), indicating the possibility of shipworm attack. 
The last test block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. . 

L-1-4—Limnoria did not appear until August 1, but both Balanus and 
Bryozoa were present on a number of blocks. The last test block inspected 
was removed October 16, 1923. 

GT-1—Limnoria appeared on the first block and by October the attack 
was fairly heavy, amounting to destruction to a depth exceeding 4,-inch. 
The last test block inspected was removed October 31, 1923. 


HARBOR REPORTS 


228 


YaIq “MOVLLY 


suuuog Ad auxLouLsaq 
DVOUWYT SNIMOHS ‘ENIVI ‘GNWILYOd LV adIg “AY MNAUL GNVYD NI NGAIUG AIG 40 


NOLLOGS—Z Fp 


‘DI 


MAINE COAST 229 


BM-12—No borers were found. Associated organisms were Balanus, 
Mytilus and some Algae. The last test block inspected was removed July 27, 
1923. 


BM-11—No borers and no associated organisms except some Algae were 
found. The last test block inspected was removed July 26, 1923. 


BM-9—A few scattered specimens of Limnoria appeared on most of the 
blocks. One specimen of Teredo (Psiloteredo) dilatata was found in the 
block removed May 1, 1923. Other organisms found were Mytilus, some- 
times in large numbers, Anomia, Saxicava, Zirphaea crispata and a few 
specimens of Balanus. The last test block inspected was removed July 24, 
1923. 


BM-10—No borers and a few specimens of Mytilus and Balanus were 
found. The last test block inspected was removed July 27, 1923. 


Methods of Protection 


The piles at the Bear Island Depot Wharf, of the Lighthouse Service, built 
in 1890-1892, were brush-coated with carbolineum and are reported to have 
given satisfactory service. 

Piles treated with 16 lb. of creosote per cubic foot were used in the State 
Pier at Portland constructed in 1922, but before this time, few piles along 
the Maine coast were protected. 

Several piles protected by wrapping with 1%-inch copper strips were 
placed for test under shed No. 1 of the Grand Trunk Ry. at Portland in 1928. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—Reports have been received from the Corps of Engineers, 
U. 8S. A., on four structures located at Portland, the substance of which is as 
follows: 


SEAWALL AT FoRT LYON.—This wall, about 450 feet long, is built on a 
ledge, and at its lowest point is 14-ft. above M.L.W. This wall was built in 
place in 1905 of 1:3:6 concrete. The materials were crushed granite, salt 
water beach sand, Alpha Portland cement, and fresh water. 

In 1916 the wall was reported to be in excellent condition, except for a 
length of about 35 feet where it is exposed to severe wave action during — 
storms and some undercutting was evident. The balance of the wall, which 
is protected against wave action to some extent by outlying ledges, showed 
no signs of disintegration. 

In 1922 it was reported that about 75 feet of this wall which was repaired 
in 1917 showed some deterioration, but not sufficient to require immediate 
repair. 


REVETMENT AT ForT LYON.—This revetment is a slope pavement of con- 
crete, about 6 inches thick, over a pavement of partly disintegrated native 
rock. It is about 140 feet long, and covers the lower slope of a sand 
epaulement. Only a few feet of it are covered by water at high tide. It was 
constructed in 1908 of 1:214:5 concrete, poured in place, and composed of 
materials similar to those of the Fort Lyon seawall. 

In 1916 it was reported that there was no disintegration. It is now re- 
ported (1922) that this revetment is in first class condition, except in a few 
places at the lower end, where the concrete paving has been broken off. 


WHARF AT ForRT WILLIAMS.—The walls from shore to low water line were 


230 HARBOR REPORTS 


built of 1:214:5 concrete, poured in place; below low water, they were built 
of precast blocks with same mixture, cured 30 days before being placed. 
The concrete was composed of Dexter cement, clean pit sand, crushed native 
rock, and fresh water. The wharf was built in 1908. It extends out from 
shore to a depth of about 13 feet at mean low water and is exposed to the 


OLD ORCHARD ~ Jy 


VF ENS 


ey: 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
SACO BAY & KENNEBUNKPORT 
MAINE 
NAUTICAL MILES 


3 
YARDS 
5000 


Fic. 43 


full force of easterly and southeasterly storms. Rocks and ice are hurled 
against it and are often left upon the deck. 

In 1910 cavities began to appear between high and low water, principally 
on the most exposed or easterly face, and on that part which had been built 
of mass concrete. This disintegration continued until 1912, when it had 


aes, 
PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 231 


extended to include the blocks on the easterly side. At this time the worst 
section formed a belt on the easterly side at and below high water, with 
some of the cavities having a maximum depth of about 6 inches. By 1914 
the concrete surfaces on all sides as well as on the deck showed considerable 
disintegration, the faces of the blocks being as bad as the mass concrete. 

In 1918 repairs were made by removing disintegrated concrete on the 
front and sides of about 3000 square feet of surface, and placing a new 
facing, requiring about 100 cubic yards of concrete. 

In 1921 practically the same work of repair had to be done. A consider- 
able amount of the last patching was either distintegrated or so loosened 
that it had to be cut out and replaced by new concrete. 


SEAWALL AT ForT MCKINLEY.—This wall is about 250 feet long and was 
built in 1914 of 1:2:4 concrete. The materials were like those of the Fort 
Lyon seawall, except that the concrete was cyclopean, using native rock of 
considerable size. 

In 1916 it is reported that there was no sign of disintegration but in 
1922 a very slight deterioration was reported. There are also a few places 
where the rock on which the wall was built is decomposed, leaving openings 
under it. 


Conclusions 


Limnoria is present in practically all harbors on the Maine coast and 
the timber supports of important structures, especially those having per- 
manent decks or carrying buildings, should be protected. The service rec- 
ords of concrete structures which could be obtained do not show that these 
structures have been very satisfactory in these waters and long life should 
not be expected unless the surface is protected from mechanical and chem- 
ical attack. 


PORTSMOUTH, N. H. TO PROVINCETOWN, MASS.* 
Description 


From Portsmouth south to Cape Ann the coast line is low and generally 
a sandy beach, with the exception of the northern shore of Cape Ann, which 
is high and rocky. Between Cape Ann and Plymouth the coast is rock, 
boulders and sunken ledges lying near the shore with deep channels be- 
tween. The shores of Cape Cod Bay are generally sandy with extensive 
sand shoals extending well out from shore in many places. Throughout 
this entire section of the coast line the prevailing winds are southwesterly 
during the summer and northerly during the winter. In severe winters 
some of the harbors are usually kept open by steamers and tugs. 

Portsmouth Harbor (Fig. 44), lies 37 miles southwestward of Cape 
Elizabeth and about 25 miles northward from Cape Ann, and is formed by 
the mouth of the Piscataqua River. During severe winters the water tem- 
perature reaches 28% degrees Fahr., the maximum summer temperature 
ranging between 60 and 64 degrees Fahr. There is a variation of from 3 
to 4 degrees due to the tide, the temperature rising in winter and falling in 
summer with the incoming tide. The mean tidal range is approximately 8 
feet; during spring tides, 9.3 feet. Tidal currents are of high velocity, 
reaching at times 6 knots, due to the large tidal area of Great Bay up the 
river. Very little fresh water in comparison with the tidal volume reaches 


*See separate report for Boston, Mass. 


232 HARBOR REPORTS 


the harbor. The salinity of the harbor water is therefore practically that 
of the ocean. The water is very clear containing little sewage or manufac- 
turing wastes and with the exception of a portion of the U. S. Navy Yard 
shore line, practically no oil pollution. At the latter point there is a thick 
coating of oil deposit on the quay walls and piles from near the high water 
mark to 3 or 4 feet below. 


Newburyport Harbor (Fig. 45), is located on the Merrimac River, 


NAUTICAL MILES 


3 a 
YARDS 


5,000 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
PORTSMOUTH & YORK HARBOR 1923 
NEW HAMPSHIRE - MAINE 


Fia@. 44 


about 3 miles from its mouth. There is a shifting bar at the entrance with 
10 to 18 feet of water over it, and a channel depth to the harbor which will 
accommodate vessels of 17 feet draught at high water. 

Beverly Harbor (Fig. 46), lies north of Salem Neck at the west end of 
Salem outer harbor and is formed by the confluence of Danvers River, — 
Beverly Creek and North River. The channel has been dredged to a depth ~ 
of 18 feet and 200 to 300 feet width. 3 


233 


S3IIN TVOIL AWN 


SLLIOAUSNHIVSSVW 


PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 


234 HARBOR REPORTS 


Provincetown Harbor (Fig. 48), is formed by a turn in the northern 
end of the hook of Cape Cod and has a diameter of about 2 miles. The 
depth at the entrance and in the harbor is ample for vessels of deep 
draught. The principal wharves are the steamboat and railroad wharf and 


NAUTICAL MILES 
3 ! . °o 
3 2 4 YARDS 
}) 1000 500 °o 1,000 2,000 
“i 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 

SALEM HARBOR 
MASS. 1923 


x : 


KS 


SR 


a fish and cold storage wharf. At mean low water the depths at the outer 
ends of these two are 8 and 7 feet respectively. 


Marine Borers 

Past History—Limnoria is present generally throughout this territory. 
The wooden stocks of some old anchors taken from the bottom of the 
Piscataqua River about 17 years ago were found to be practically destroyed 


ia ei ee a 


PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 235 


by Limnoria. The depth at this point was 40 feet. While repairing the 
old bridge at the Navy Yard. at Portsmouth in 1912, many of the piles 
which had been in place for 25 to 30 years were found to have been eaten 
off at the mud line and a recent inspection shows that some of those which 


NAUTICAL MILES 


MA!l? SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
LYNN HARBOR 
MASS. 


were allowed to remain are completely eaten off up to about extreme low 
water, whereas replacement piles which were driven about 17 years ago are 
still in good condition. Some damage by shipworms has also been reported. 


Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as shown in the 
following table: 


236 HARBOR REPORTS 


Date 
Location Symbol Installed Installed By 


Portsmouth—B. & M. Bridge 
UNO Ea f Olcz ctiee ach Ona eee ree ete BM-8....| July 7, 1922 By & M> RR eee 


Portsmouth—Henderson’s Point .} YD-107...| Jan. 2, 1923 NSW ont ore cre eee 
Newburyport—B. & M. Bridge 
O00 F. 5.4. Cees Sits SEE BM-7....| July 6, 1922 B. & Mo Re Rese 
Beverly—B. & M. Bridge No. 32} BM-6....| July 6, 1922 B. & Mik R eee 
Revere—2.1 miles north of B. & 
M. Bridge No. 14 (Fig. 47)....| BM-5....| July 22, 1922 |B. & M.R.R......; 
Provincetown—R. R. Wharf....| NH-2....| June 2, 1922 N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


CO COMM OOO 


*Board in horizontal position. 


}Boards changed to vertical position on the following dates: Jan. 2, Portsmouth; Jan. 11, Newburyport 


and Beverly. 


GCA PE ClO Lf BAY 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 


TEST BOARDS 


PROVINCETOWN HARBOR 


MASS. 
STATUTE MILES 


\9s2e3 


~~ a) = 


PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 237 


The results of the inspection of test blocks from these boards were as 
follows: 


BM-8—Limnoria first appeared July 7, 1922, and continued to appear on 
many of the blocks though few in number. The associated organisms were 
Anomia, Mytilus, Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia), the two latter indicating 
the possibility of shipworm attack appearing in 1923 but not in 1922. The 
last test block inspected was removed July 20, 1923. 


YD-107—No life whatever appeared until June 18, when a few Balanus 
and Algae were found. Later a few specimens of Saxicava and Mytilus 
appeared but no borers were found in the blocks. The last test block in- 
spected was removed September 20, 1923. 

Specimens of timber from several of the structures at the Navy Yard 
showed considerable Limnoria action and some Teredo attack. The largest 
specimen of Teredo navalis found on the Atlantic Coast was in one of these 
timbers. 


BM-7—Only one test block of the 25 examined showed any life and this 
one had two specimens of Limnoria, a few Mytilus, Saxicava and a little 
Algae. The last block inspected was removed July 25, 1923. 


BM-6—Limnoria was found on many of the blocks but seldom exceeding 
30 in number. Associated organisms were Anomia, Mytilus, Pecten, Ostra- 
coda, Foraminifera and Bryozoa (Lepralia). The last block inspected was 
removed July 26, 1923. 


BM-5—A very few specimens of Limnoria appeared on a few blocks. 
Associated organisms were Balanus with a little Algae. The last block in- 
spected was removed July 24, 1923. 


NH-2—The Limnoria attack was heavy and some specimens of Sphaeroma 
destructor appeared. Teredo navalis numbering from two or three to 20 
was found in many but not all blocks. The largest animal measured was 
about 5 inches in length. One specimen of Teredo dilatata about 10 inches 
in length was also found. 

Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa, Foraminifera, Pecten, 
Algae and a few specimens of Limacina balea. 

- In addition to the test blocks several specimens of piles, both oak and 
chestnut, were examined. They were practically destroyed after a service of 
from 10 to 18 years. 


Methods of Protection 


Very few structures have been protected against borer attack though 
the practice of driving piles with the bark in place has been quite general. 
There are few definite records as to the life of structures in any of these 
harbors but it is thought that unprotected pine will last from 15 to 20 
years and oak slightly more at Portsmouth and perhaps half this length of 
time at Provincetown. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—The only concrete structure reported by the Navy is the 
arched quay wall under the coaling plant of the U. S. Navy Yard at Ports- 
mouth, built in 1902 and 1903. It is 233 feet long and consists of 6 con- 

crete arches resting on 7 piers, which in turn rest on ledge rock. The 
facing edge of the intrados and the coping is granite. The stone fill back of 


238 HARBOR REPORTS 


the wall arches is held by a timber crib up to about the low water line with 
a concrete curtain wall above this level. 

It is exposed to salt water and spray and to moderate wave action and 
abrasions. The climatic influences and atmospheric conditions are severe. — 

The piers (9 ft. by 23 ft. at the top) were built by depositing concrete 
under salt water from a bottom dump bucket in a wooden form from which 
the water was not excluded. The form having been placed on the ledge 
was first made tight around the lower edge by concrete in bags. 

Atlas and Phoenix brands of Portland cement, Plum Island sand, and 
broken trap rock from the Navy Yard were used in the proportions of 
1:2:4 below, and 1:3:6 above high water, the gauging water partly fresh 
and partly salt, the consistency “‘mushy.” There are steel I-beams across 
the arches and short steel I-beams where the columns of the coaling plant 
rest. There were tie rods to take the thrust of the arch until the adjacent 
quay wall should be built. 

The piers were examined by a diver in 1920 and were reported to be in 
generally good condition. The present condition of the arches is poor to 
fair. There are a number of eroded areas on the intrados, the worst being 
about 15 inches deep and at the rear of the arches, immediately above the 
piers, there are three badly eroded places. The curtain wall is badly eroded, 
in one place clear through. The face has a number of eroded places, in 
some cases as much as 12 inches deep, but not of great surface area. 

A concrete monolith at Sandy Bay Breakwater, Cape Ann, is reported by 
the Army as follows: 


A 90-ton concrete monolith in the Sandy Bay breakwater, with its base 
about 4 feet above mean high water, and its top 4% feet higher, was built 
in place in 1910. The concrete was made in the proportion of 1:2144:5 of 
Atlas cement, salt water sand, crushed granite, and sea water. 

The exposure to wave action is severe. 

Pitting on the surfaces of the concrete was noticeable within a year after 
it was poured, and up to 1916, the year of the last report, the deterioration 
had been progressive. 


Conclusions 


Except at Portsmouth and Provincetown the tests do not show attacks of 
much importance and at Portsmouth they are not heavy. It would seem 
that protection for wooden piles used for important structure in either of 
these harbors would be an economy. It does not seem so necessary in the 
small harbors in which the tests’ were made except for structures where 
long life is important. 

Concrete structures on which reports are quoted, or on which the con- 
struction data are incomplete and are therefore not included, do not seem to 
have generally given satisfactory service in salt water on account of the 
combined attack of waves, sulphates and ice. 


BOSTON HARBOR 
Description of Harbor 


The following description of Boston Harbor, (Fig. 49), is taken from a 
report, “The Port of Boston, Mass.,” prepared by the Board of Engineers 
for Rivers and Harbors, War Department, in codperation with the Bureau 
of Research, U. S. Shipping Board: 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION.—Boston is situated on Massachusetts Bay, and 
is one of the most important ports of the United States, considered both from 


Fic. 49 


NAUTICAL MILES 


° 
YARDS 
4000 $008 1,000 2,000 


LANES, 

PRN ORY 
NS 
tNDS 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
BOSTON HARBOR 
MASS. 1923 


hits 
SOMES] 
CQES 


ONS 
RRS 


Ss 


AES te eta 


BAY 


DORCHESTER 


1 YD-106 


BOSTON 239 


the standpoint of its facilities and the extent and value of its commerce. 
The harbor includes all the tidewater lying within a line from Point Allerton 
to Point Shirley, comprising an area of about 47 square miles, exclusive 
of the islands. The entrance between these two points is about 434 miles 
wide and the distance from the Point Allerton-Point Shirley line to the 
Charlestown Navy Yard, via the 35-foot channel, is about 714 miles. 

The City of Boston includes within its limits East Boston, Charlestown, 
South Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester and Neponset. East Boston is on the 
northeastern side of the harbor, and is separated from Boston proper and 
Charlestown by the main ship channel, and from Chelsea by Chelsea Creek. 
South Boston fronts on the bay and the lower part of the main ship channel, 
and is separated from Boston by the Fort Point Channel. Charlestown fronts 
on the main ship channel at its upper end and on Mystic River and Charles 
River, and is separated from Boston proper by the latter stream. 


THE OUTER HARBoR.—Boston Harbor and approaches have a very broken 
rocky bottom. President Roads is a deep water anchorage area between 
Deer Island and Long Island at the entrance to the outer harbor, and is the 
common point to which all important channels of the outer harbor converge. 

There are three main channels of entrance from the sea to President 
Roads, with depths respectively of 35 feet, 30 feet and 27 feet, and widths of 
1,500 feet, 1,200 feet and 1,000 feet. There are also five minor channels 
with depths of from 8 feet to 18 feet. 


THE INNER HARBOR —The main:ship channel with a depth of 35 feet and 
a width of 1,200 feet extends from President Roads to the upper end of 
the Navy Yard at Charlestown and with a somewhat less depth to the 
bridges across the Charles and Mystic Rivers and Chelsea Creek. 

Charles River, the approach to Cambridge and Watertown, has a depth of 
21 feet between the bridge and dam, a distance of about % mile. Above the 
dam the water is practically fresh. 

The Mystic River, leading to Medford and Malden, has a depth of 30 feet 
and a channel width part 500 and part 600 feet to a point about % mile 
below the second bridge; above this point the depth is about 6 feet. 

Chelsea Creek from the lower bridge to the Chelsea Street Bridge has a 
depth of 25 feet and a width of 150 feet. 

There are a number of short channels tributary to the Mystic River and 
Chelsea Creek which have been dredged to depths of from 23 feet to 28 feet 
with varying widths. 


Ti1pES.—The mean range of tides is 9 feet at Boston Lighthouse and 9.6 
feet at Charlestown Navy Yard, in Chelsea Creek, and in Fort Point Chan- 
nel. The extreme range is about 4 feet greater. 


TIDAL CURRENTS.—For some distance northwestward of Cape Cod the 
tidal currents have a slight set southward into Cape Cod Bay on the 
flood and eastward out of the bay on the ebb. Along the northern shore of 
Massachusetts Bay the flood sets in a general westerly or northwesterly 
direction and the ebb in a southerly or southeasterly direction. The velocity 
of the currents is influenced greatly by the force and direction of the wind. 
Off the entrance to Boston Harbor the flood sets westward and the ebb 
eastward, increasing slightly in velocity as the entrance is approached. 

The tidal current at Boston Light Vessel is small, averaging about one- 
fourth knot at the time of strength. Its greatest velocity observed during 
three months in autumn was less than 1 knot. 

The maximum velocity of the tidal currents in the various harbor channels 
varies from % to 2 knots except in the Nantasket Gut, where it reaches 
5 knots. 

The mean annual precipitation is 43.38 in., distributed evenly throughout 
the year. Prevailing winds are southwesterly during the summer and 
northerly during the winter—the heaviest gales being always from east or 
north eastward. In severe winters the greatest part of the harbor is frozen 
over, the channels being kept open by towboats and steamers. All sewage 
is emptied into the ocean at ebb tide, none entering the harbor. The tem- 
perature of the atmosphere ranges between —14° and 104° Fahrenheit, 
the annual mean being 49.4°. 


b | 


240 HARBOR REPORTS 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Shipworms have been found in waterfront structures of 
Boston Harbor to a limited extent. The probability of serious damage in a 
short period of time is thought to be remote. Limnoria is active at times 
and has been known to so weaken structures as to require a considerable 
amount of replacement work, as was the case with Pier 5, Charlestown 
Navy Yard, where in 1913 it was found that over 100 piles had been eaten 
away at the mud line. All of the piles attacked were spruce—pine and oak 
remaining uninjured. 


Committee Investigation—Standard test boards were installed as fol- 
lows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line |} M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
South Boston Coal Dock........ NH-1 N.Y.N.H. & H.R:R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 12-0 
Drawbridge No. 2—Millers River| BM-1....] B. & M.R.R....... July 1, 1922 0.3 72.0 
Wiharf- Noo 46 2. 2. Asner BMe2. 223) BidMe Re Ree July 1, 1922 Deg #5 4 
Drawbridge No. 6—Charles River] BM-3....| B.& M.R.R....... July 1, 1922 Ne 713.0 
Drawbridge. Nos 7%. 2. ee one BM-4:.4.. |) RB: & MeRAReeeee July 1, 1922 0.4 76.2 
VATINY DASCs <> 2i0s sccsstce een Aa2d gece ah ATHIY.uk. tee ee Sept. 9, 1922 0.4 26.4 
Wovells Island: ”. 3.2 eee A=28 20: ATRNY eS pan soy craeene Sept. 9, 1922 0.5 8.7 
Hog Island: oo icck be eee S29. Fee] ATID ote ee Sept. 9, 1922 0.5 11.6 
Cunard Pier No. 3—East Boston] BA-1..... B. & A. R. RB... ..... epOetetsy 1922 2.0 24.5 
Bridge No. G. S. 743—Chelsea 
Creek. oes, FR Sete BA-Jawere Bi acne ae Oct. 14, 1922 2.0 28.0 
IBostonrNavy. ¥ ard ooo eee YD-105:5.. Navy): eae ee Oct. 15, 1922 123 26.8 
Destroyer Base—Squantum..... Y:D2106. | INSiayikece oaer eee eee Oct. 15, 1922 0.0 12,0 
Kort) Pomt)OGhannel sense ASR-1....| American Sugar Re- 
finn a Oo see ee ee Feb: 15,1923!" ae Are eee ee 


*Board in horizontal position. 
TBoard changed from horizontal to vertical position December 15, 1922. 


The results of the inspection of test blocks from these boards were as 
follows: 


NH-1—The Limnoria attack on these blocks was fairly heavy, the blocks 
being destroyed to a depth of about 14-inch in a year. Many of the blocks 
had a heavy deposit of mud but specimens of Mytilus; Algae as well as 
Balanus; and Bryozoa were often in evidence. In spite of the presence of 
the two latter no signs of shipworms were found. 


BM-1—Two specimens of Limnoria and one small specimen of Balanus 


were the only organisms which appeared on the blocks during the 13 months 
during which the board was immersed. 


BM-2—A few specimens of Limnoria appeared on five or six of the 
blocks but no other life. 


BM-3—Limnoria appeared on nearly all blocks, at times several hundred 
on each face. The damage exceeded %4-inch in the 13 months in which 
the board was in service. No other organism appeared. 


BM-4—No borers were found and there was a considerable deposit of 
mud on all the blocks. The accompanying organisms found were Mytilus, 
pelecypods with some specimens of Balanus and Bryozoa. 


A-27—A few specimens of Limnoria were found on one block. Otherwise 
no life appeared. 


A-28-—A few specimens of Limnoria were found in some blocks. Ac- 


BOSTON 241 


companying organisms were Mytilus, Algae, a few specimens of Balanus and 
Bryozoa (Lepralia). 

A-29—A comparatively small number of Limnoria never exceeding 100 
were found on most of the blocks. The accompanying organisms were 
Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula) in small numbers. 

BA-1—Limnoria, never more than 50 individuals, were found in some 
blocks with occasionally Mytilus representing the accompanying organisms. 

BA-2—Specimens of Limnoria and a rather heavy growth of Tubularia 
appeared on a few blocks in the summer of 1923. 

YD-105—Limnoria only, in small numbers, was found until the late 
summer of 1923 when the blocks were damaged to a depth of 14-inch. 
Nudibranchs of the genus Aeolis which were found indicate that the degree 
of pollution is probably not sufficient to explain the absence of shipworms 
in numbers. 

A piece of 8 by 8 inch timber taken from a flume which carries the cir- 
culating water return from the condenser plant was examined. The flume 
has been in service between 20 and 30 years and the water temperature 
varies between 50 and 70 degrees Fahr. The specimen which was typical 
of the structure was damaged by Limnoria for about half its depth; the 
timber in the top of the flume was in excellent condition. 

Another specimen taken from the outer end of the shipbuilding ways be- 
tween Piers 6 and 7 showed a severe Limnoria attack. This specimen also 
contained one shipworm burrow of rather recent date, about 9 in. long. 
Both ends of the tube had been eaten away by Limnoria. 


YD-106—A very few specimens of Limnoria accompanied by Balanus and 
Bryozoa were found on the blocks removed late in the summer of 1923. 


ASR-1—No life of any kind appeared during the 6 months that this 
board was in service. 

Salinity and temperature observations made by the Boston & Albany 
Railroad at Cunard Pier No. 3 at East Boston and at Bridge G J 748, 
Chelsea, are shown in Figs. 50 and 51, respectively, and observations of 
salinity, temperature, oxygen content and hydrogen-ion concentration made 
by the American Sugar Refining Co. are shown in Fig. 52. 


Methods of Protection 


Protection of timber exposed to marine borers has never been considered 
necessary, although there are some creosoted piles in service. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—The following records of concrete structures are taken from 
a special report on structures belonging to the Navy Department at the 
Charlestown Navy Yard. 


Pier 1 is approximately 400 by 150 feet and consists of a face wall made 
up of concrete arches 24 feet wide and 40 feet span. The piers supporting 
the arches are approximately 12 feet by 38 feet and extend 30 feet below 
M.L.W., where they rest on a pile foundation. Reinforced concrete curtain 
walls were constructed on the inside of the arches extending from the 
extrados of the arch to the surface of the riprap filling, these curtain walls, 
together with the arch piers, forming a retaining wall to confine the filling 
material which forms the central portion of the pier. 

The pier was built in two sections, the outboard in 1902 and the inboard 
(consisting of 4 arches and piers) in 1903. 

The principal repairs on this pier have been made as follows: 


242 HARBOR REPORTS 


1907—Reinforced concrete curtain walls were reinforced by a close row 
of wood piling. 

1911—-Five concrete arches in outboard section were repaired by re- 
inforced concrete girders and 24-inch I-beams and a mass concrete 
retaining wall was built behind a part of the original wall. 


1919—F aces of piers and arches repaired by the use of Gunite (Dewey 
Cement Gun Company method). This contract was abrogated be- 
cause in the work of cutting away poor portions of the concrete 
the deterioration was found to extend much deeper than originally 
expected, requiring such large masses of new concrete to replace 
the old that it was deemed inadvisable to complete the work by 
the Cement Gun method. A granite facing was built for replace- 
ment of the deeply eroded section. 


The concrete used in the original construction was a 1:2:4 mixture, 
Lehigh and Alpha brands of cement being used on the outboard and 
Catskill on the inboard ends; the aggregate was screened gravel and a 
good quality of sand. Below M.L.W. the concrete was deposited within 
well constructed plank forms by means of a metal tremie, a dry mixture 
without water being used, the tremie being well charged before discharging 
and frequently moved. 

This pier is exposed at times on the end to a one or two mile per hour 
current, and also to slight wave action. It is exposed to abrasion from float- 
ing debris and considerable ice during the winter months. Much of the 
damage is undoubtedly due to ice and frost; some damage is also attributed 
to vessels lying’ alongside the pier. 

All concrete structures at the Navy Yard are exposed to a range of tem- 
perature from about 90° Fahr. in the summer to a normal minimum of 0° 
Fahr. in the winter, with freezing conditions almost daily during the three 
winter months. 

Pier No. 1 is at present in poor condition and extensive repairs may be 
necessary. 


QuAY WALL, WEST INBOARD SIDE PiER No. 1—This is a reinforced con- 
crete wall approximately 700 feet long, 45 feet high (32 feet 5 inches below 
M.L.W.) and 8 feet thick. The way is backed by a heavy timber crib filled 
with rock. The lateral crib timbers are notched and extend into the wall. 

The reinforcement consists of heavy galvanized triangular mesh expanded 
metal and is placed near the face of the wall. 

The wall was built in 1900 by the Fitchburg Railroad and repaired in 
1915 by the Boston & Maine Railroad, lessee (the agreement between the 
Fitchburg Railroad Company and the United States being that any repairs 
to the wall should be made by the railroad company). 

The concrete above M.L.W. was 1: 3:6 mixture, below M. L. W. 1: 2:3 
mixture, gravel being used for the aggregate. 

In that portion of the wall below M. L. W. concrete was deposited by the 
use of bottom dump buckets, the concrete flowing through the meshes or the 
expanded metal to form the face. The forms of heavy matched timber 
were bulkheaded into sections, but are reported not to have been tight, and 
much difficulty was reported in depositing concrete and in the maintenance 
of the reinforcement in proper position; a rather dry mixture was used 
above M.L.W. This wall at present shows considerable deterioration both 
above and below mean high water. 

There is at present along the entire water front at this station a large 
accumulation of fuel oil, which forms a permanent coating on all structures 
between the range of extreme high and low tides. 


HINGHAM AMMUNITION DEpPOT.—The concrete pier forming a dock at the 
Hingham Naval Ammunition Depot for all vessels having business with this 
station is “U” shape, 13 feet in height and built on a timber platform 
(Elev. 102.3 feet) with pile supports. The pier, built in 1910, is situated 
on the Weymouth Back River, a salt tidal stream discharging a consider- 
able quantity of fresh water. The river freezes over in the winter months, 
and there is heavy ice in the dock and on the surrounding walls. The amount 
of chemical waste, etc., that is discharged by this river is small. There is a 
maximum current in the river of from 4 to 5 miles per hour. 


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‘HARBOR REPORTS 


Timber Work.—The timber platform and piles are in apparently good 
condition, no signs of any deterioration being noticeable except in the tops of 
some of the fender piles along the dock walls, which are decayed. : 

Easterly Dock Wall.—The easterly wall is in good condition, showing 
only at isolated points any signs of scaling on the face of the wall. 

Southerly Dock Wall.—This wall shows deterioration of the concrete 
for practically its entire length (76 feet) and for a vertical distance of 
4 feet 6 inches, which is the distance between the timber platform and the 
8-inch waling pieces between the fender piles. 

The depth of this deterioration is from 2 inches to 1 foot. Above and in 
close proximity to the wales are several isolated spots having a total area 
of 40 square feet where the concrete has scaled off from 3 inches to 6 inches 
in depth. On the entire face there is a scale of from 1 inch to 2 inches in 
thickness that is loose in many places. The back of this wall has an area of 
10 square feet where the concrete has been eroded 4 inches to 6 inches. 
There is a crack extending completely through this wall at approximately 
30 feet from the westerly end. 

Westerly Dock Wall.—This wall shows deterioration of concrete along 
its entire length (100 feet) below the waling pieces from 3 inches to 
1 foot in depth. Above the waling pieces are a number of spots having 
a total area of 70 square feet where the concrete has scaled off from 2 inches 
to 6 inches in depth. There are three cracks extending entirely through this 
wall about 30 feet apart. The back of this wall shows erosion in several 
places, with a total area of 30 square feet and from 2 to 10 inches in depth. 
Much of the wall shows signs of scaling. 

North End Wall.—The concrete for its entire length (14 feet 6 inches) 
and for an average height of 7 feet is eroded from 1 foot to 2 feet in depth. 

Westerly Return Wall.—(27 feet long and 6 feet high). The concrete 
is badly eroded over an area of 90 to 100 square feet from 6 inches to 1 
foot back from the face of the wall. 

The easterly dock wall mentioned above was repaired with gunite in 1918 
by the Dewey Cement Gun Co., and the other defective walls were repaired 
in the same year with the steam atomizer process by the Harold F. Brown 
Co. In 1928 all walls except the easterly one again needed repairs. 


- Two structures, the seawalls at Fort Heath and Fort Warren, are re- 
ported by the Army as follows: 


SEAWALL AT ForT HEATH.—This wall was built in 1910 and 1911 to hold 
the toe of the granite slope pavement which protects the foot of the bluff 
at this place. It was founded at the mean high water line on hardpan, 
into which it extended about 3 feet, was some 600 feet long, 3 feet high 
and 2% feet thick. It was constructed of 1: 2: 4 concrete, hand mixed, and 
poured continuously in sections about 8 feet long. ‘The materials were Alpha 
cement, pit sand, crushed trap rock, and salt water. About half of the wall 
was built with stones from the beach set in the face. It was exposed to the 
severe storms from the east and northeast, sweeping over a beach covered 
with stones of all sizes. 

In 1912 it was reported that most of the sections into which the wall was 
divided by vertical construction joints showed some pitting, but in the 
majority no real injury had resulted. 

In 1916 it was reported that out of the more than forty sections, seven 
were broken and worn down to the level of the shore, and a number of 
others were badly pitted at about the line of high water. In 1923 all but a 
few of the sections have been broken and worn down to the grade of the 
beach, and all those standing are badly broken and eroded on the face. 


SEAWALL AT FORT WARREN.—In 1918 a concrete seawall was built at Fort 
Warren, as well as concrete foundation backing, and paving for a granite 
seawall. The wall is about 140 feet long, 7 feet high, including its founda- 
tion, and averages 3 feet thick. Above the foundation, the wall was built 
in alternate sections 10 feet in length with a recess in the end of each 
section, the 10 feet spaces between sections being filled in afterwards. All 
sections were monolithic. 

The wall and paving were 1: 2: 4 concrete made of cement to pass speci- 
fications of the Bureau of Standards, salt water sand, salt water gravel and 


245 


BOSTON 


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246 HARBOR REPORTS 


salt mixing water. The wall was founded on earth about 1 foot above mean 
high water, and granite riprap placed in front of it. The exposure to wave 
action is very slight. 

On a recent inspection, no evidence of deterioration was seen in the con- 
crete wall or paving. 


The construction records of the Boston Army Supply Base are as follows: 


Construction authorized April 7, 1918. 
Construction contract awarded April 9, 1918. 
Construction work started April 10, 1918. 
Construction work completed June 5, 1919. 


Wharf.—The wharf is 5,478 feet long. 
General type of substructure construction. 


Woodpiling cut off at mean high water, bearing girder and beam con- 
struction of reinforced concrete with reinforced concrete floor slab. 22,857 
wood piles for most part hard southern pine with no protection. 


Wharf Sheds.—1,638 feet by 100 feet, carried on 16,000 wood piles. 


Pier Sheds.—Each building 924 feet by 100 feet, carried on wood piling. 
The longitudinal walls adjacent to the water in the north and south sides 
of structure are carried partly on precast concrete sheet piles and partly on 
Raymond piles driven just inside sheet piling. 


1,115 feet concrete sheet piling. 
6,288 Raymond concrete piles. 
4,196 wood piles. 


Specification for concrete calls for a 1: 2:4 mixture. Amount of cover 
over reinforcing steel is shown on plans as 2 inches from perimeter of steel 
both in bottom and sides of beams and on bottom of slabs, and it is presumed 
that this was actually followed in construction. The main storehouse rests 
on concrete columns. 


Totals.— 
Wood: Piles... 5 so p's)iec0)eltaen 43,053 ft. 
Concrete Sheet Piles .......5..4 ~ o aeisnsleneeeeeee 1,115 ft: 
Concrete Raymond Piles .......25 20) eee 6,288 ft. 


A report on the condition of these structures made in 1923 is as follows: 
“A careful inspection of the concrete piling and girders of this Base was 
made, and the following report is submitted. The concrete piles are in ex- 
cellent condition with the exception of .a few under the North Pier shed, 
which are slightly streaked with rust. The outside concrete girders next to 
the cap-log on the dock at the North and South Pier sheds showed rust 
streaks from 2 to 9 feet long in several places. In many of the girders the 
reinforcement rods are exposed for six feet. The outside girders of the 
wharf shed are in better condition than those of the pier sheds, but there 
are signs of rust streaks and the rods are visible in places. From an exam- 
ination of the girders in the vicinity of the exposed rods, it would appear 
that the reinforcing had a 1-inch cover. In a few places on the bottom of 
these girders, the rods were on the surface of the concrete, and apparently 
did not have a cover. The conditions herein described were found above 
high water, although the girders are exposed to the water from time to time 
in heavy weather, and when the tide is unusually high. The most of the 
interior girders are still covered by the wooden forms used in construction, 
but in the places that are exposed the girders are apparently in excellent 
condition, with no sign of rust streaks appearing, and all of the rods well 
covered.” 


Conclusions 

Practically all concrete structures reported show deterioration and most 
of them severe damage, and while in the light of present knowledge of con- 
crete construction, improvements in the quality of concrete could un- 
doubtedly be made, it seems very questionable whether Portland cement 


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248 HARBOR REPORTS 


concrete without mechanical protection, such as granite facing, and a bind- 
ing medium which will better resist chemical attack can be expected to 
give long life. 

Limnoria attack, while not heavy at any point, will cause destruction in 
time. Results obtained from test block inspection do not indicate the prob- 
ability of serious damage by shipworms, though these animals are present 
in the harbor. 


BUZZARDS AND NARRAGANSETT BAYS 
Description 
The shore line of both Buzzards, (Fig. 53), and Narragansett, (Fig. 54), 
Bays is bold and generally rocky, with stretches of sand beach. The pre- 


NAUTICAL MILES 
' 2 3 


YARDS 


C5655 Ss 
1000 0 2,000 4000 *6000 7000 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
BUZZARDS BAY 

MASS. 1923 


Fig. 53 


vailing winds are northwesterly in winter and southwesterly and southerly 
in summer, but are subject however to many variations at all seasons. In 
winter drift ice is usually to be found. In 1908 the temperature of the 
water at Woods Hole ranged from 30 degrees Fahr. in February to 70 
degrees Fahr. in July and August. The water of Buzzards Bay in the 


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249 


NARRAGANSETT BAYS 


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250 HARBOR REPORTS 


vicinity of the Cape Cod Canal was slightly warmer, the temperature reach- 
ing 7114 degrees Fahr. in August. 

Buzzards Bay is the approach to New Bedford Harbor and to the entrance 
of Cape Cod Canal. The mean rise and fall of tides is 4 feet. 

Woods Hole is a narrow passage leading between numerous rocky shoals 
from Vineyard Sound to Buzzards Bay between the mainland and Nona- 
messet Island. 

The Cape Cod Canal which connects Buzzards Bay with Cape Cod Bay is, 
including the approach channel, 1114 miles in length, and has a least depth 
of 22 feet. The bottom width varies from 100 to 300 feet. The average 
velocity of the current at midstream is 3.6 knots. The canal has never been 
closed by ice but the Buzzards Bay approach has been. 

New Bedford Harbor is located on the northwestern side of Buzzards 
Bay. The approach from the bay and the entrance to the harbor are ob- 
structed by ledges and shoals. A channel 300 feet wide has been dredged. 
to a depth of 25 feet. 

The entrance to Narragansett Bay is between Brenton Point, the south- 
western point of Rhode Island on the east and Point Judith Neck on the 
west. The bay is approximately 16 miles in length from the entrance to its 
northern extremity at the mouth of the Providence River. The greatest 
observed velocity of the tidal current is 1:3 knots per hour and the mean 
rise and fall of tide is 3.5 feet at the entrance and 4.7 feet at Providence. 

Newport Harbor, (Fig. 54), is located on the eastern side of the Eastern 
Passage of Narragansett Bay about 345 miles above the entrance to the 
Bay, and is divided by Goat Island into an inner and outer harbor. The 
outer harbor is on the western side of Goat Island, between Rose Island on 
the north and Fort Adams on the south. The depths range from 40 to 60 
feet. The inner harbor is on the eastern side of Goat Island and extends 
along the waterfront of the city of Newport. The northern portion has 
been dredged to a depth of 18 feet; the southern portion to 13 feet. 

Fall River, (Fig. 55), is at the head of Mt. Hope Bay at the mouth of 
Taunton River. The depth at the wharves ranges from 10 to 25 feet. 

Warren, about 214 miles above the mouth of the Warren River, has a 
channel of 10 feet minimum depth leading up to it. 

Providence River is the approach to the Port of Providence, (Fig. 55), 
located about 7 miles from its mouth. The approach channel has a depth of 
30 feet and the harbor area is being dredged to that depth. At Providence 
below the bridges the wharves have depths ranging from 10 to 380 feet. 
Tidal currents are not strong and generally follow the direction of the 
channel. In severe winters the river is closed to navigation for short 
periods. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Both shipworms and Limnovia are present throughout this 
territory. The Lighthouse service has experienced considerable trouble 
with attacks by borers on their dolphins and buoys in Buzzards Bay and 
their wharf at Woods Hole. The dolphin piles specifically reported were of 
creosoted white oak (no record of treatment) and were completely destroyed 
in two years. Creosoted cedar spar buoys are said to last only three years, 
and treated oak piles in the wharf at Woods Hole five years. Heavy damage 
by marine borers has occurred in the past to waterfront structures at Fall 


251 


NARRAGANSETT BAYS 


BUZZARDS AND 


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252 HARBOR REPORTS 


River. In other parts of this territory unprotected timber is estimated to 
last 6 to 10 years although there are some wharves of record which have 
stood 20 years without renewal of piling. 


Committee Investigations—The test boards installed are shown in the 
following table: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Woods Hole—Bureau of Fisheries Bureau of Fisheries.. . 
Wiliart see o hee Oe ore eee PRES. cng = (Dept. of Commerce) | Oct. 2, 1922 2.5 9.2 
Buzzards Bay entrance to Cape 
Cod Canal (Dolphin No. 164).} CC-1..... Cape Cod Canal..... June 1, 1923 1.0 15.0 
New Bedford—Duffs Coal Wharf] A-31..... Arimnye ohh ae ace Oct. 14, 1922 0.5 17.5 
New Bedford—Fort Rodman....| A-32..... (ATIVIVE Mae 5 Aare Oct. 14, 1922 0.5 7.2 
Newport—Long Wharf......... NH-3....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 10.0 
Newport Government Landing. .| YD-104...] Navy............... Oct. 15, 1922 2.0 7.0 
Newport—Constellation Dock...| YD-103...} Navy............... Oct. 15, 1922 1.0 8.0 
Newport—Gould Island Wharf. .} YD-102...] Navy............... Oct. 15, 1922 2.0 12.0 
Newport—Melville Coaling Pier.}| YD-101...| Navy............... Nov. 1, 1922 0.0 ick 
Fall River—New England Steam- 
ship: Co,; Pier) jn ee eee NH-18...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R Aug. 1, 1923 2.0 18.0 
Fall River—Slades Ferry Bridge.| NH-8....] N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.5 20.0 
Warren—Intake Pier........... NH-7....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 *Q.1 
Providence—India Pt.......... NH-9 N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 ee! 23.7 
Duteh Island, Harbor, -........ - A-33. 5.2 ATM Y¥6 coe ae eee Oct. 14, 1922 0.5 9.6 


*Board in horizontal position. 


The inspection of test blocks and specimens gave the following results: 


A-30—This board was immersed too late for the 1922 season of activity 
and consequently no shipworms were found until block 20 was removed, 
August 1, 1923, in which two specimens of Teredo navalis appeared. Block 
22 contained 1, blocks 28, 30, and 24, removed October 1, 40 specimens of 
Teredo navalis. Attack by Limnoria was of medium intensity. Associated 
organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. 

CC-1—4 specimens of Teredo navalis ranging in length from 5 to 20 
mm. were found in block 3, removed September 1, 1923, and 100+ with 
lengths from 1 to 2 inches were found in block 4, removed October 4. None 
appeared in the monthly (center) blocks. No Limnoria activity was in 
evidence. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

A-31—20 blocks from this location were examined and while the appear- 
ance of Balanus and Bryozoa indicated favorable conditions for shipworms 
none were found. Attack by Limnoria was severe. 

A-32—No life of any kind appeared on the first 14 blocks. A few Balanus 
were found on block 15, removed June 1, 1923, which increased in number 
to about 100 on the succeeding blocks. Activity by Limnoria was light. 
The last block examined (No. 20) was removed August 16, 1923. This 
showed a trace of Limnoria activity, of Bryozoa and about 100 specimens of 
Balanus. 

NH-3—The first shipworm was found on block 5, removed August 15, 
1922, just beginning to form the burrow. Shipworms, identified as Teredo 
navalis, ranged in number from 3 to 50 on each of the succeeding blocks. 
The old type of testboard was continued in service, all of the original and 
9 replacement blocks, the last one removed October 15, 1923, having been 
examined. Activity by Limnoria was intense. Of the associated organisms 
only Bryozoa was found. 


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253 


NARRAGANSETT BAYS 


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254 HARBOR REPORTS 


YD-104—No shipworms were found. Limnoria action was of medium 
intensity. Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa, Algae and Anomia. 
20 blocks were examined between November 1, 1922, and August 16, 1923. 


YD-103—20 blocks were examined, the removals having been made be- 
tween November 1, 1922, and August 16, 1923. No shipworms were found 
and the activity of Limnoria was negligible. Associated organisms were 
Mytilus, Bryozoa and Algae. 


YD-102—Same as YD-103 with the addition of Anomia among the asso- 
ciated organisms. 


YD-101—19 blocks were examined between the dates November 15, 1922, 
and August 16, 1923. No shipworms were found but Limnoria action was 
heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus and Algae. 


The examination of a section of untreated timber taken from underwater 
cross-bracing placed in Melville Coaling Depot, in 1915 and removed in 
August, 1922, showed complete destruction by Teredo navalis and heavy 
attack by Limnoria. 


NH-18—This board is of the revised type and two sets of blocks were 
removed September 1, and October 1, 19238, respectively. Shipworms did 
not appear on the monthly (center) blocks but were numerous on the others 
as many as 100+ being found in the second block. These were identified 
as Teredo navalts. 


NH-8—A, few specimens of Teredo navalis were found in block 5, re- 
moved August 15, 1922, their number increasing to 30-40 in each of the 
succeeding blocks 6 to 8 inclusive. Block 9 removed October 16, was well 
filled and block 10 removed October 31, completely filled with Teredo navalis. 
Complete destruction was effected in three months time. Limnoria action 
was severe in the first few blocks but diminished in intensity with the in- 
crease of shipworm attack. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa 
and Algae. At the time of the removal of block 22, May 1, 1923, the board 
together with the remaining original and the replacement blocks was care- 
fully examined. From this examination it was found that the end of the 
season of activity occurred prior to September 1. A new board of revised 
type was installed June 27, 1923. Teredo navalis appeared on blocks 3 and 
3C of the new board, removed September 1, the center block having been 
in the water one month. Block 4C, removed October 5, contained 100=- 
specimens of Teredo navalis. 


NH-7—The first appearance of Teredo navalis occurred on block 4, re- 
moved August 1, 1922. Block 6, removed September 1, was completely per- 
forated by the young organisms and destruction progressed even more 
rapidly than at NH-8. The board together with remaining original (Nos. 
17-24) and replacement blocks was removed February 15, 1923, and a new 
board of revised type substituted. From an examination of the old test 
specimen, the end of the season of activity was determined to. have occurred 
between August 15 and September 1. The first Teredo navalis to be found 
on the new blocks appeared on block 4, removed September 1, 19238. Asso- 
ciated organisms were Ostrea, Balanus and Algae. Limnoria action was in- 
considerable. 


NH-9—Teredo navalis first appeared in block 12, removed December 1, 


1923. From 1 to 4 specimens were found in each of the succeeding blocks 
to and including block 27. Block 27, being the third replacement block, was 


255 


NARRAGANSETT BAYS 


BUZZARDS AND 


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256 HARBOR REPORTS 


placed in the water July 15, 1922. None of the remaining replacement 
blocks contained shipworms. There was no Limnoria action. Associated 
organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. 


A-33—Twenty blocks from this board were examined and although the 
associated organisms indicated that conditions were favorable for ship- 
worms, none were found. This may be accounted for by the late date 
(October 14, 1922) on which the board was submerged. The last block was 
removed August 15, 1923, a little too early for the 1923 brood. A very 
light attack of Limnoria was in evidence. Associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus and Algae. 

It is now safe to say that there is generally a period of immunity from 
shipworms in this territory of about ten months between September 1 and 
July 1, though the 1923 attack occurred later than that of 1922. 

Chemical analyses of the water at Warren and Providence (India Point) 
were made daily and the temperature, salinity, oxygen content, and hydro- 
gen-ion concentration at these two locations are shown on Figs. 56 and 57. 

Salinity and temperature observations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1923, recorded by the Bureau of Fisheries are shown on Fig. 58. 


Experimental Field Tests 


Tests of the protective qualities of copper wire and bands are being con- 
ducted by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, at Warren. 
Blocks bound with both wire and bands with different spacing ranging from 
14 inch to 2% inches were immersed on November 5, 1922. This method 
had in view its possible application to existing structures. The results of 
this experiment will be found in Chapter II, page 14. 


Methods of Protection 


The great majority of timber exposed to marine borers in this territory 
is unprotected which is surprising in view of the activity of both shipworms 
and Limnoria. Little or no service data of creosote, or other protection 
methods, are to be had from the territory. Some creosoted structures are in 
use and the experience of the Lighthouse Service with this method cited 
above should not be taken as representative of this district. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—The following report on structures at the Naval Station at 
Newport, R. I., was furnished by the Public Works Officer. 


“There are three concrete-timber structures at this Station, one at Rose 
Island, constructed in 1913, one at Melville Fuel Station, constructed in 
1916, and one at the Training Station, constructed in 1919. Also a concrete 
pier at Gould Island constructed in 1919 and 1920. The structures at Rose 
Island and Melville are of the same type, reinforced concrete deck and 
columns, set on wood pile bents, 25 feet centers; piles are cut off at mean low 
water, and capped with yellow pine timber. The columns were precast, and 
allowed to season thirty days, summer season, before handling. The con- 
crete mixture was one part of Lehigh cement, two parts of sand, and four 
parts of stone; clean fresh water was used for mixing. The sand used was 
composed to a large extent of quartz; stone, crushed granite; steel, deformed 
bars (exact type not known), minimum cover of steel 114 inches. These struc- 
tures are exposed to salt spray. The present condition is good. The struc- 
ture at the Training Station consists of an enclosing plain concrete wall on 
pile and timber platform, the interior of pier filled with dirt. Wood piles 
are cut off at mean low water and the outside edge of platform protected 


OE ey 


257 


NARRAGANSETT BAYS 


BUZZARDS AND 


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258 HARBOR REPORTS 


by concrete sheet piles 12 inches thick. Sheet piles precast, 1:114:3 mixture 
of Acme cement, quartz sand, crushed granite; plain round steel bars for 
reinforcing. Piles were allowed to season thirty days, summer season, and 
were driven with a 5,000 lb. drop hammer, no damage having been caused 
by driving. This structure is in good condition. The Gould Island pier con- 
sists of a reinforced concrete flat slab deck, 1: 2: 4 mixture, built on rein- 
forced concrete piles, 1: 1%: 3 mixture; cement used, Lehigh; sand largely 
composed of quartz; stone, crushed trap rock; steel, plain cold twisted rods. 
Concrete piles were cast in the month of November, non-freezing weather, 
and were allowed to season for about five months. They were driven with 
a steam hammer to rock, a penetration of about three feet. In order to 
obtain lateral support, the spaces between piles were filled with riprap to 
about mean low water. This structure is greatly exposed to wave action and 
salt spray. It is in good condition. 

“All concrete in these structures was covered during the period of curing, 
and kept wet; all forms used were of wood; reinforced steel was clean, and 
all construction joints were washed before joining new concrete. Concrete 
was poured in nonfreezing weather. The concrete in these structures is 
in good condition. In about four years after completing the Rose Island 
pier, rust spots began to show on the bottom of girders; at these places 
the rods were exposed, cleaned and re-covered with gunite. These rods were 
probably allowed to sag during construction. This pier is exposed to storms 
and wave action, and is of a design poorly adapted for this location, as 
lacking rigidity to resist vibration. These structures have not been installed 
a sufficient length of time to properly judge their suitability.” 

Metal Structures—The deck of main coaling pier installed at Melville in 
1903 is supported by 48 inch steel plate girders, 48 feet 6 inches span, 3% 
inch web plate, 6 inches by 4 inches by 1% inch angles, 13 inches by % inch 
cover plate. The bottom of this girder is 7 feet above mean low water, and 
is subjected to salt spray. To prevent these girders from deteriorating, 
they have been cleaned, red leaded, and painted from time to time. In 1921 
part of this steel work was sand blasted to gray metal, and a coat of gunite 
was applied, about 36 inch thick. The total cost of this work was 438.6 cents 
per square foot, of which 35.8 cents was for sand-blasting and chipping, and 
7.8 cents for gunite. Due to vibration of the steel work caused by blows 
from ships striking against the sides of the piers, the gunite has in some 
places cracked away from the steel. 


Conclusions 


Service records and the investigations of the Committee indicate that 
structures in salt water in this territory may be attacked by borers and 
that all timber constructions of importance should be protected if they are 
to have a reasonably long life. The attack may easily be severe enough to 
cause destruction in two or three years. 

The record of concrete is not especially good and the practice of facing 
concrete structures with granite as practiced by the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford Railroad undoubtedly adds greatly to the life of the structure. 


LONG ISLAND SOUND (POINT JUDITH TO THROGS NECK) 
Description 


Long Island Sound is a region of boulders with very little natural change 
taking place in the shore line and shoals such as occurs on the outside coast 
of Long Island, where the beach is sandy and free from boulders. In ordi- 
nary winters ice forms in the western end of the Sound as far as Eatons 
Neck; in exceptionally severe winters it may extend to Falkners Island and 
farther eastward. 


A a ee ee ee ees 


a EE Ne a diet on: 


LONG ISLAND SOUND 259 


Fishers Island, (Fig. 59), about six miles long, is at the eastern entrance 
to the Sound. Silver Eel Pond, where the test board is located, is on the 
western end of the island, about five-eights mile northeastward of Race 
Point. The entrance is about 75 feet wide between jetties, with a depth of 
16 feet diminishing to 14 feet inside. 

Mystic River, (Fig. 60), has been dredged to a least width of 100 feet 
and a depth of 15 feet up to the town bridge at Mystic. Below the railroad 
bridge the current is less than one-half knot per hour. The mean rise and 
fall of tide at the location of the test board is 2.5 feet. 

The Thames River, (Fig. 61), which flows into the Sound northwestward 
of the western end of Fishers Island, forms the harbor of New London. 


re) 


§ 4 
4 
WILDERNESS PT. 
RACE PT. 
MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
FISHERS ISLAND SOUND 
NAUTICAL MILES Iis23 
! 3 2 4 YARDS 
[ee 
1000 500 fe] 1oco 2000 
Fie. 59 


This harbor has a dredged channel of 400 feet minimum width and 33 feet 
depth with a mean rise and fall of tide at New London of 2.5 feet. The 
depth alongside the wharves at low water ranges from 10 to 16 feet. 
The currents found in the Thames River are not strong, the velocity gen- 
erally averaging from one-half to three-quarter knots, though two knots 
has been recorded at the Submarine Base. At the U. S. Naval Station 
(Submarine Base), 2 miles above New London, there is a minimum depth 
of 2714 feet, and at the coal receiving piers of the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. 
at Allyns Point, 5 miles above New London, there is a depth of not less than 


260 HARBOR REPORTS 


22 feet at high water. Ice seldom forms below the Naval Station except 
close to shore where piers retard the current, though drift ice is sometimes 
driven in from the Sound in severe winters and has been known to extend 
to a distance above the mouth of the river of 134 miles. 

The Fort Terry Wharf on Plum Island, (Fig. 62), has a depth of 15 feet 
at the outer end. 

Greenport Harbor on Long Island, (Fig. 62), opposite the mouth of the 
Connecticut River, is formed by a breakwater on the northeast. The depths 
at the wharves range from 7 to 19 feet. The test board is located on the 
Texas Company’s wharf, in 7.5 feet of water at mean low water. 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF ; 
TEST BOARDS 4 
MYSTIC RIVER, CONN. 


NAUTICAL MILES 1923 
) 


© 
YARDS 


1990 


Fic. 60 


Guilford Harbor, (Fig. 62), lies about midway between the mouth of the 
Connecticut River and New Haven Harbor. The test board.is located about — 
1144 miles up West River, where the mean rise and fall of the tide is ap- 
proximately 3.2 feet. 

New Haven Harbor, (Fig. 62), has been improved by the construction 
of breakwaters at the entrance, and by dredging a channel with a minimum 
width of 400 feet and depth of 20 feet to Tomlinson Bridge. The depths at 
the principal wharves range from 12 to 18 feet. The average velocity of 
the current at strength is 1.2 knots. The mean rise and fall of tide is 6 feet. 

West River, between New Haven and West Haven, (Fig. 62), has been 
dredged to a minimum width of 100 feet and a depth of 12 feet. ¢ 

The test board on the Housatonic River is located on the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Railroad bridge, about 214 miles above Milford Point, 
(Fig. 62). The river has been dredged to a depth of 7 feet and a width of 


et 


LONG ISLAND SOUND 261 


100 feet. The average velocity of the current on flood is 1.3 and on ebb 
1.6 knots with a mean rise and fall of tide of 6.5 feet. The river above 
Stratford is closed by ice during the winter, which peeee ay extends to 
the entrance in severe winters. 

Bridgeport Harbor, (Fig. 63), has been improved i the construction of 
' two converging breakwaters at the entrance and by dredging a straight 
channel 300 feet wide and 22 feet deep from the entrance to the anchorage 
basin, and 18 feet deep in the harbor and Poquonock River. The depths 
alongside the railroad wharf and the City Dock are 18 to 20 feet and at 
some of the wharves in Poquonock River there are depths of 10 to 13 feet. 
The average current velocity at strength is 0.7 knots with a mean rise and 
fall of tide of 6.5 feet. 

On the Saugatuck River, or Westport Harbor, the test board is located on 

the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad bridge at Saugatuck, about 
214 miles above the entrance (Fig. 63). The depths at the principal wharves 
are 8 to 10 feet. The mean rise and fall of tide is 7 feet. 
- Norwalk River has been improved by dredging a channel 150 feet wide 
and 10 feet deep to South Norwalk, (Fig. 63), where the test board is located 
at the crossing of the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. The mean rise and fall of 
tide at this point is 6.5 feet. 


Marine Borers 

Past History—The records of the Corps of Engineers U. S. A. show that 
Limnoria is present throughout all this territory and the life of unprotected 
timber is estimated to be from 10 to 15 years. The New York, New Haven 


& Hartford Railroad reports past attacks on their structures as follows: 


Allyns Point 


New London 
(Shaws Cove) 


New London 


Guilford 


New Haven 


New Haven 


New Haven 


New Haven 


New Haven 


Coal Dock of untreated 
timber. 


Pile trestle, 384 chest- 
nut and 40 oak piles— 
untreated. 


New England Steam- 
boat Pier. 800 chestnut 
and 160 oak piles—un- 
treated. 


East River Bridge. Pile 
trestle—untreated. 


Water Dock on un- 
treated chestnut piles. 


Belle Dock on untreated 
chestnut piles. 


Shop Dock on untreated 
chestnut piles. 


Canal Dock on un- 
treated chestnut piles. 


Heaton’s Wharf on un- 
treated chestnut piles. 


Light attack of Limnoria prior to 
1918. Dock first built in 1870. Age of 
present piling, 19 years. Condition, 
good. 


Light Limnoria attack prior to 1908 


Light Limnoria attack prior to 1909 


Heavy Limnoria attack. Condition of 


piles in 1921 such that replacement of 
piles driven in 1905 was necessary. 


Slight Limnoria attack on old piles. 
Replacement piles driven in 1918 are 
undamaged. 


Majority of piles in place since 1885. 
Very slight Limnoria attack. 


Original piles driven in 1891 some- 
what affected by Limnoria. Replace- 
ment piles driven in 1915 undamaged. 


Built in 1887. Majority of original 
piles somewhat affected by Limnoria 
action. Replacement piles driven in 
1920 are undamaged. ~ 


Built in 1885-6. 


Some damage by 
Limnoria in past. 


262 HARBOR REPORTS 


New Haven Digger Dock on un-- Built about 1887-88. Extended in 
treated chestnut piles. 1907 and 1910. Original piling shows 
traces of Limnoria action. 1907 and 

1910 piles undamaged. 


New Haven Middle Dock on un-_ Built about 1886-1887. Piles some- 
treated chestnut piles. what eaten by Limnoria and decayed. 
New Haven West River trestle—un- Built in 1885. Renewed in 1909 due to 
treated chestnut piles. poor condition on account of wood 
borers. 1909 piles slightly attacked. 

Limnoria. 


Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Fishers Island, Fort Wright Q. M. 
Doék see. Sale eee 4 ATINVaNt Jee tee comet July 2, 1922 1.0 9.0 
Mystic (Mystic River) Bridge No. 
JE aN ec st eM ER IE ot ch oe NH-5.....| N.Y.N.H. & H-R.Re.| June: 1, 1922 0.0 Chee 
New London (Shaws Cove) 
Bridge, No. o0,4 a0 ae eee NH-4,... >| N.Y.N.H. & BRL. le smest at 922 0.0 10.2 
New London (Central Coal Co. 
IRGCKet) Ser ae nok ie aed cone 5 ATM Yous ee es Ga June 3, 1922 1.0 13.0 
(|Pier A 18.0 
New London (Submarine Base).. 5 Navy Soden aoe June 1, 1923 1.9 sie ae 
Pier K 7.5 
Allyns Point (Thames River), N. 
YeeN: Hed Ro Re Coaling 
WW hart: xtes oe. cern NH-6....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 4.5 
Plum Island, Fort Terry Wharf.. 5 ATMY:..., ogt «pene July 2, 1922 1.0 12.0 
Greenport, Texas Oil Co., Dock.. 2 ATID. en 6 ee July 2, 1922 1.0 13.0 
Guilford (West River) Bridge No. 
1G 1 Oita seits sie, 2.5 OR eRe NH-15...| N.Y.N.H. & H.RiR oe} June 1922 0.0 9.5 
New Haven (Digger Dock)...... NH-16...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 5, 1922 0.0 4.0 
New Haven (Bell Dock)........ 6 AYN: (cbs cree oe July 4, 1922 0.0 Hel 
New Haven (West River) Bridge 
NODS 225 aha. ce a NH-17...|) N.Y.N.H. & H.R-R. | June 5, 1922 0.0 5.3 
Devon (Housatonic River)...... NH-11...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.6 10.0 
Bridgeport (Poquonock River)...}| NH-12...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 Ona 15.0 
Westport (Saugatuck River)....}| NH-14...)| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 072 7.0 
South Norwalk (Norwalk River).| NH-13....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.5 6.5 
Davids Island (Fort Slocum) Q. 
IVE. Wiharloee:, ... 03 eee 8 Army. 265 oe ee May 18, 1923 1.0 13.0 


The result of inspection of the test blocks and specimens from these loca- 
tions is as follows: 


No. 4—This board showed a few specimens of Limnoria accompanied by 
Bryozoa in the first two blocks and on the third a Teredo larva was found. 
The board was lost and replaced November 11, 1922. Bryozoa and Algae 
appeared in January and the first Limnoria on March 1, and by May 15, 
about 60 specimens of Limnoria had appeared. The board was again lost. 

Specimens of cedar and spruce slats from lobster pots collected in the 
summer of 1923 were filled with Teredo navalis. 


NH-5—Limnoria appeared on the second block, numerous Teredo larve 
on block 5, removed August 15 and in block 8, removed October 16, there 
was a large number of Teredo navalis two to four inches in length. The 
blocks were thoroughly honeycombed and a new board was placed April 15, 
1923, but Teredo navalis did not appear until the blocks removed September 
16, when a few from one-sixteenth to one-eighth-inch long were found. This 
number had slightly increased on October 15. Associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa (Bugula), Ostracoda and Molgula. 


900! 


ooot 


SITIW AVIILAYN 


NEW LONDON 


da 


Y Lh % 
my KS 
" ALLYNS PT. 
NH-6 i, 


*y12 


a 


PIER A - SPRUCE 


PIER E-OAK & PARAFINE 
PIER E-SPRUCE & « 
PIER G- YELLOW PINE 


PIER K- SPRUCE 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
THAMES RIVER-HARBOR OF NEW LONDON 
CONNETICUT 1923 


T9 “OLA 


prs. NAUTICAL MILES 
See: wk Hot ieke. _~ aS. ee 
VAMP S 


il tact iterate nerinommnaed 
gr Sat, Se MR LR nae eden 


* oe re Oo ere 


Sa a a 


Senet en oh 


- ao fe TE ee on eee “oF ats". poe: 


A eo 


GUILFORD 


LONG 4FSLAND. SOUND 


EASTERN PORTION 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
LONG ISLAND SOUND 


‘NAUTICAL MILES 


43240 ! 2 3 4 5 6 
YAROS 


1000 Oo 5000 10000 


LON G ISLAND 


re, 

Q 

we 

ween 
<7 


eo 


NEW ROCHELLE 


SE 


LONG TSZLAWND |S QO? 


WESTERN PORTION 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
LONG ISLAND SOUND 


NAUTICAL MILES 
+ 


3 
YARDS 
5000 


KO’ 


KOte te lee, 


‘i 


yes < Bt 


Mat, on 


LONG ISLAND SOUND 263 


NH-4—tThe first Teredo navalis about 4% inch long appeared in the block 
removed September 16, and the number increased to about 20 per block 
from 2% inches to 3 inches long before January 1, 1923. Larve first 
appeared in the gills in June, 1923, and the longest animal found up to 
September 16 was 5 inches. The first animals of the 1923 brood appeared 
on the block removed October 1. Limnoria attack was severe; the associated 
organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Red Algae and Foraminifera. A large 
sewer discharges near this board. ; 

No. 5—Limnoria appeared in the first block and Teredo navalis one- 
fourth to one-half inch long in the fourth, removed September 15; larger 
numbers about 3 inches long were found in all blocks up to No. 20, removed 
May 15, when a new board was placed. No specimens of Teredo appeared 
in this new board before October 1, but the Limnoria attack was very heavy. 
Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Red Algae, Mytilus and 
Gasteropods. 

No. 112—The finger piers A to K were built on unprotected piles and the 
Teredo attack on the piles was found to be quite variable. Therefore boards 
were placed on four piers to endeavor to get information as to variation in 
the attack. The attack in 1923 was very light, since Teredo navalis was not 
found until the blocks removed October 1, and then in very small numbers. 
The Limnoria attack was also light. Associated organisms were Balanus, 
Bryozoa, Mytilus and Tubularia. Fig. 64 shows the condition of untreated 
pine piling after 5 years’ service. 

NH-6—Aside from two specimens of Limnoria on one block no borers were 
found. Associated organisms were Balanus, Green Algae and a few Bryozoa 
and Mytilus. 

No. 3—A few specimens of Limnoria associated with Balanus, Bryozoa, 
Mytilus and Green Algae were found on the original board, which was re- 
placed by a new board on May 19, 1928. No change occurred during the 
summer of 1928. 

No. 2—Two boards were placed and lost after short periods of immersion. 
Limnoria associated with Bryozoa (Bugula) were found in the few blocks 
received. 

NH-15—tThe first Teredo, 4 inch long, was found in the block removed 
September 11, 1922. Lengths of from two to four inches were attained 
before November 1 after which growth ceased. From 8 to 15 animals were 
found in each block. Associated organisms were Balanus and a few 
Bryozoa. Limnoria was much more destructive in 1923 than in 1922. 

NH-16—Limnoria was fairly destructive and no associated organisms 
other than Green Algae were found. 

No. 6—This board was only in service until February 16, 1923, and 
showed no marine organisms except slight traces of Green Algae. 

NH-17—A few specimens of Limnoria associated with a small number of 
Balanus were the only organisms found on this board. 

NH-11—A few Bryozoa were the only organisms found at this station. 

NH-12—One block out of 33 showed a few specimens of Mytilus and 
Bryozoa; the others showed no life. 

NH-14—Limnoria first appeared July 1, 1922, and Teredo navalis about 
September 1. All later blocks showed from 10 to 35 specimens of Teredo. 
Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and a very few specimens of 
Mytilus and Petricola. 


264 HARBOR REPORTS © 


NH-13—tThe first specimens of Teredo navalis appeared about September 
1, 1922, and they reached a length of 3 to 4 inches by the close of the season 
with about 20 animals in each block. A new board was immersed April 15, 
1923, and the first Teredo appeared between September 1 and September 15. 
Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and a few specimens of 
Mytilus. 

A pile dolphin built with unprotected piles, driven in 1919 at White Rock, 
had to be removed in September, 1922, on account of damage by Teredo 
navalis. 

No. 8—This board only remained in service for six weeks and did not in 
that. time show any borers, although a number of specimens of Balanus 
were found. A rather heavy attack by Teredo navalis was found in timber 
removed from the wharf. 


Special Tests 


‘In order to determine whether there was any difference in the intensity 
of attack or any difference in the boring shells in different kinds of timber, 
specimens of pine, spruce and oak were immersed at the Submarine Base, 
New London, on May 1, 1922. When examined one year later the shells 
showed no differences, but the attack on the pine and spruce was very heavy, 
while it was only of medium intensity on the oak. This result was the 
opposite of that obtained at Galveston. 


Methods of Protection 


It has not been the custom to protect timber against the attack of marine 
borers in this territory. Some creosote impregnation has been used in New 
Haven Harbor, proving effective against Limnoria action. Creosoted piles 
were used for the foundation of the quay wall and crane of the Submarine 
Base, New London, but sufficient time has not elapsed to determine the 
efficacy of the treatment. 


Substitutes for Timber 


-Concrete—The Bureau of Yards and Docks reports on concrete work as 
follows: 

“The only concrete in Waterfront Structures at the New London Sub- 
marine Base is the mass Quay Wall and the foundation for the 30-ton 
crane at the end of Dock ‘B.” 

“Quay Wall, 1: 2: 4 concrete cast in blocks 30 feet long and of depth and 
thickness indicated at various points. 

P y RouRtaED under crane, 1: 2: 4 concrete partly mass and partly rein- 
orced. 
“Concrete of Quay Wall subject to tide and wave action. 

“So far as can be noted all concrete is in excellent condition after four 
years’ service.” 

The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Co. reports that it has 
several concrete structures in this territory and that, as a whole, little 
trouble has been experienced with them. In addition the following state- 
ment is made: “At a few locations, particularly Cos Cob, Bridgeport and 
New Haven, six to ten inches of the face of some of the concrete structures 
within tide limits deteriorated quite badly within three to five years. We 
believe this is due to a poor lean mixture of the original concrete. These 
particularly bad places have been repaired by taking off the poor materials 
and facing up with a new rich mixture of concrete either in form work or 


NEW YORK HARBOR 265 


by use of the cement gun. Some of this work was done five or six years 
ago and there has been no resulting deterioration since.” 


Conclusions 

Teredo was not found at Allyns Point (NH-6), Fort Terry (3), Green- 
port (2), Digger Dock (NH-16), Bell Dock (6), West River (NH-17), 
Devon (NH-11), and Bridgeport (NH-12), but there is good reason to 
think that it is present at some of these locations, such as Greenport. 
Limnoria in large numbers was found at the Digger Dock and in small 
numbers at the other locations except at Bell Dock (6), Devon Hill (NH-11), 
and Bridgeport (NH-12). These three latter locations, therefore, appear to 
be the only ones at which protection for piles is not economically desirable 
for the prevention of damage by borers. 

At some of these locations where Limnoria is present only in small num- 
bers it is probable that protection would be economical only for important 
structures when the cost of replacement would be high either on account of 
the character of the structure or the resulting interference with traffic. 

Pile protection would be an economy at all other locations. 

The attack of Teredo navalis seems to have been lighter and to have 
commenced from two weeks to a month later in 1923 than in 1922. It 
appears probable that the period of inactivity and consequently of immunity 
from attack ordinarily extends from about September 15 to July 15. 


NEW YORK HARBOR 


For purposes of this report, New York Harbor, (Fig. 65), is considered to 
be the waters of the Hudson, Harlem and East Rivers, the Upper and Lower 
Bays, the Kill van Kull, Arthur Kill, Newark Bay, Raritan and Jamaica Bays 
—all between Willets Point, Sandy Hook, Coney Island, and the north end of 
Manhattan Island. The report also includes for convenience certain data 
collected on the south shore of Long Island. 


Marine Borers 

Past History—The earliest evidence of the presence of marine borers 
in New York consists of specimens of Teredo navalis found many years ago 
in the wreck of a British frigate sunk in Hell Gate during the Revolutionary 
War. These specimens may be found in the Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Philadelphia. Prior to 1870 reports indicate that marine borers were active 
and destructive throughout the harbor, that by 1875 their activities had con- 
siderably lessened and that, except for localized sporadic outbreaks, they 
have done little damage in the rivers since that time. In 1898 a wharf at 
Greenpoint failed on account of the attack of teredine borers, but other 
structures in the immediate vicinity were not seriously damaged. It has 
been thought that the long continued high degree of pollution has probably 
been responsible for the immunity which has appeared to exist. 

In 1922 the “New York Committee,” organized to cooperate with the 
National Committee, sent out an exhaustive questionnaire to wharf owners 
in the harbor as defined above, and also to owners on the New Jersey coast 
as far south as Atlantic City, and to those in Long Island Sound. These 
questionnaires were intended to collect as complete a record as possible of 
the history of borer attacks in the territory under investigation, and also to 
ascertain whether any indications had appeared of heavier attack in the last 
few years. 


HARBOR REPORTS 


Fic. 64—-UNTREATED PINE PILE, U. S. N. SUBMARINE Base, NEw LONDON, CONN. 
Driven, 1918—Removed, 1928. 


a 


ik 


NEW YORK HARBOR 267 


Approximately 1,100 questionnaires were sent to owners in the entire 
district. Separate reports are being made for Long Island Sound and the 
New Jersey Coast south of Sandy Hook, and deducting the replies received 
by the New York Committee from these two areas, reports received covered 
292 structures in the New York Harbor area. Two hundred twenty-nine of 
these reports showed no recorded attack, 22 gave a record of past attacks, 
and 41 reported present attacks. 

The 22 structures from which past attacks were reported, where no attack 
was thought by the owners of the structures to be going on at present, were 
located as follows: 


Pier 35 East River, Jefferson St., Manhattan..... Attack in 1916 


ET PAS IVET 5s 0 osc scr cee ot cn eee Attack in 1914 
Greenpoint, East River structure collapsed....... Attack in 1898 
Edgemere (Rockaway Point) and Barren Island..Attack in 1894-97 
Weehawken, N. J.-Erie R. R. Piers.............. Attack in 1908 
Weehawken, N. J.-N. Y. C. R. R. Piers........... Attack in 1911 
Weehawken, N. J.-N. Y. C. R. R. Piers........... Attack in 1922 


Pier 16—Hudson River at Barclay St., Manhattan. Attack in 1909 
Pier 1—Hudson River at 70th St., Manhattan....Attack in 1909 
iagpoKen, N: J., Public Service Ry. Co............ Attack in 1906 
MMIII ING Jo gee e es ie vk cc aes sees Attack in 1898 
Perth Amboy, N. J. 

Port Richmond, Staten Island, Kill van Kull. 


Except for the attacks at Greenpoint and Edgemere no very extensive 
damage was reported at any of these locations. While a few specimens of 
Limnoria have been found, such damage as occurred has generally been 
caused by Teredo navalis. 

The reports of present attack are generally based on the inspection of 
timber removed from the water between the years 1919 and 1922. 

These reports are as follows: 

East River between the Battery and Fort Totten has six reports of pres- 
ent attack by teredine borers, all light. 

The Hudson River from the Battery to Tarrytown shows seven points of 
attack, all light and all below Edgewater. 

The Upper Bay between the Narrows, the Battery and Communipaw 
showed twelve locations where there was thought to be attacks, most of 
them on the Staten Island shore. 

The Kill van Kull, Arthur Kill, Newark Bay and tributaries, reported six- 
teen locations, most of them on the Kill van Kull, where the attack was of 
medium intensity. 

The Lower Bay reported one location only, which merely indicates that 
many owners did not reply. 

The south shore of Long Island reported very heavy attacks in seven 
locations. 


Committee Investigations—The New York Committee was organized in 
March, 1922, and the investigations were made under the general direction 
of that committee. The Director of the National Committee acted as the 
executive for the New York Committee as well as for the National Com- 
mittee, and employed for work exclusively in the New York district an en- 
gineer, a biologist and a chemist for various periods. 


268 HARBOR REPORTS 


The New York Committee placed a number of test timbers in the harbor 
early in 1922, and later installed standard test boards at many of the same 
locations. It was difficult to keep test boards in service, as many were lost, 
probably by theft. In addition to the collection of specimens by the test 
board method, arrangements were made with a number of wharf owners 
and with contractors for notice of repairs which involve the pulling of piles 
so that an inspection of such timber could be made by the biologist em- 
ployed by the committee. The test boards, manufactured by the New York 
Central Railroad, were located as follows: 


SECTION 1, EAST RIVER—BATTERY TO WILLETS POINT—AND HARLEM RIVER 


BOARD DATE 
NO. LOCATION MAINTAINING AGENCY INSTALLED 
1b» Kort -Lottens. e200. eee Army 
14° Ft. Schuyler® og... 2 ae ae Army 
13. Rikers. island: occa ee ee Army July gon 2022 
$9." Willis, Avevguts eens ee N... Y¥., N. cH. & eee June 1, 1922 
67 Wards [slandiy,. . 7-44 sae N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug.. 2, 1922 
bo. Grand’ St Plier -.. 2. N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 271922 
93." -Pier 36,° Hast Kiver®. 2c. ae NAY oC hake June 15, 1922 
95. (Pier 4, HasteRiver = 70... Noy ie ee Aug. 29, 1922 
Pio. Ssrd St Brookhyn 4. Am. Sugar Ref. Co. March 1, 1923 
ol. Pier. C,-Navy 2) ard. 27 eee Navy July 27; 1922 


SECTION II—HvupDSON RIVER 


OO West 156tbs St ets ee N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. :2,41822 
59° West 52nd St. Pier .2..ce..- N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 2, 1922 
28 Barrow ‘St. Rec. Pier ...... N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 1, 1922 
94 Weehawken, N. J.......... NYG. ae May 75, Aa 
94L Weehawken, N. J. ......... NueYo Ge Reo. June 1, 1922 
1027 — Hoboken N«.) =a eee Ds. be &W han Aug. 1, 1922 
107 Eagle Works, Jersey City..Standard Oil Co. Now, “A351 022 
103° Pier A; Jersey City. 3 cee Lehigh Valley R. R. Sept. 22, 1922 
OG bP ier \ 22 ee oe. eee BY Ol eae Aug. I, 1922 
DLP “Lhe Battery. 1. eee N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 27, 1922 


SECTION IJJ—Uprer BAY—KILL VAN KULL—ARTHUR KILL, NEWARK BAY 


41 85th St. Pier, Gowanus Bay...... Navy July 14, 1922 
42 Bay Ridge Barracks, Brooklyn. .Navy July 25, 1922 
43. Et.. la Fayette... 232 ee ee Navy July . 18, 1922 
64 Pier 18, Clifton, o.01-oc ee eee N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 27, 1922 
104 Tompkinsville Lighthouse, S. I...Bureau of Lighthouses Oct. 11, 1922 
G3 Pier 6; Tompkinsvillesseleo. sa, N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 27, 1922 
98... St. Georges, li, ae eee eee ee Bs &:O.Ro he Aug. -1,-i922 
43°. Constable Hook <2. see ee Navy Oct. 6, 1822 
LOG? Bayonne “22.4.0 ee eee ee Standard Oil Co. Nov. 43, 1922 
LLOO Warner, Nod. < oe ee Am. Cyanamid Co. Feb. 15, 19238 
100 *-Elizabethport Ns J. 2s ereene Singer Mfg. Co. July 15, 1922 


ie? Bayway,” Ni od... ctr eee ee Standard Oil Co. Nov. 1, 1922 
AT TARGSSVlley Sovls oe ae ithe wick N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 11, 1922 
21 Newark Bay Ridge . as ce Be COR. ROE Ne. July 17, 1022 


NEW YORK HARBOR 269 


_ SECTION IV—LOwWER Bay, JAMAICA, GREAT SouTH BAY AND RARITAN BAY 


Go emiidiand Beach Pier, 8. I......... N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug., 1922 
ReMMEEMEICOSS ISA. oo... et we ee N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 11, 1922 
aueeereren Amboy, N. J.............. Dace. Oi. oe Aug e422 
OE ne Army July, 1922 
BPORTCTVULIGI oc. ccs ec cc cet ae ce Set Wd eee Be Aug., . £01922 
Ba Aciantic Highlands, N. J......... Army July, 1922 
23 Ft. Hancock, Sandy Hook........ Army July 29, 1922 
44 Marine Basin, Gravesend Bay....Navy JULY 15.1922 


68 Atlantic Y. C. Pier, Sea Gate....N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 20, 1922 


69 Steeplechase Pier, Coney Island..N. Y. Dept. of Docks duly. 20, 1922 
45 Manhattan Beach, Coney Island..N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aus. 99271922 
70 Barren Island, Jamaica Bay..... N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 11922 
vie ail Basin, Jamaica Bay........ N. Y. Dept. of Docks Auge Si ro27 
i maeamaicasbay R.R. Trestle....... Ty eek, AUS eS, P1 922 
fo wamaicn bay RK. R. Trestle....... feel SRA Aug. 8, 1922 
EE a Navy Angee Sy 1922 
Sempeevese mavvilice, 1. J......... cc uee Blue Points Co. Aug. 1,°1922 
PETG? WOOGS 5. cc beens cae ewe Bay Shore Yacht Club Nov: 9207 1922 


The results of the inspection of test blocks and timber from structures are 
as follows: 


SECTION I—No representatives of Teredo or Limnoria were found in test 
blocks in this section except that a few specimens of Limnoria were found 
at Rikers Island, but Balanus and Bryozoa were found at Rikers Island and 
Pier 4. The presence of these animals generally indicates that the water 
conditions are such that Teredo can live. 

No life of any kind was found on the blocks from Willis Avenue in the 
Harlem River nor those from South Third Street, Brooklyn. 

Live Teredo navalis was found in timber from Fort Slocum, Clason 
Point, Astoria, Ferry Slip 5 at South Street, and Ferry Slip 2 at Whitehall 
Street. The attack was fairly heavy at Fort Slocum and Clason Point, but 
only a few animals were found at the other locations. A comparatively light 
Limnoria attack was also found at the ferry slips near the battery. 

Piles from structures at the foot of East 110th Street, East Thirty-seventh 
Street, East Twenty-eighth Street and Grand Street showed evidence of 
having been attacked in the distant past, but none showed recent attack. 

It would seem to be indicated that a serious attack need not be expected 
in the Harlem River, since no encrusting or boring organisms have been 
found there; that a destructive attack can apparently occur near the en- 
trance to Long Island Sound, but that in the remainder of the East River, 
while Teredo is present and can live, it does not seem to threaten a destruc- 
tive attack at the present time. The number of points near the Battery at 
which Teredo has been found shows that this is a point where attack is a 
possibility, and therefore structures in this vicinity should be carefully 
watched. 


SECTION II—No organisms were found on the blocks at West 156th Street, 
at the Barrow Street Pier, nor at the Eagle Works of the Standard Oil 
Company. Balanus and Bryozoa as well as Algae were found on the blocks 
at the Battery, Pier 22, North River, Hoboken, Weehawken and Pier A, - 
Lehigh Valley at Jersey City, showing that in all probability Teredo can 


270 HARBOR REPORTS 


live in these locations, and this is confirmed by the finding of a few live 
specimens of Teredo in piles from the Wilson Line Pier at Hoboken and a 
larger number at Pier A (Fig. 67), of the Lehigh Valley Railroad at Jersey 
City, as well as old borings in piles from the Christopher Street Ferry and 
at Edgewater. Limnoria has been found at the Battery, West Fifty-second 
Street and Pier 22, North River, but not in great numbers. 

While no damage of importance has been done in this section recently, the 
finding of a few specimens of Teredo at Hoboken, and a larger number at 
Jersey City, shows that this area is at least suspicious and that frequent in- 
spections should be made. In the Lehigh Valley piers, while the number of 
animals found was small, the fact that they were found in many of the 
piles examined, shows that the vicinity is one to be carefully watched. 


SECTION I]I—The test blocks at most stations in this section, or timber 
taken from structures, show both Teredo and Limnoria to be widely dis- 
tributed, except in the Arthur Kill and Newark Bay. The boards at the 
Thirty-fifth Street Pier, Gowanus Bay, Tompkinsville Lighthouse Pier, and 
Constable Hook, did not show Teredo, but did show Balanus, Bryozoa and 
Algae. 

Limnoria made a rather light attack on the blocks at Bay Ridge Barracks, 
Gowanus Bay, and Pier 6, Tompkinsville, and a fairly heavy attack at Fort 
LaFayette. 

Living specimens of Teredo were found at the following locations in either 
test blocks or in timber from structures: 


Bay Ridge Barracks—Light attack. 

Fort LaFayette—Light attack. 

Tompkinsville Lighthouse Pier—Light attack. 

Pier 18, Clifton—Moderate attack. 

Pier 6, Tompkinsville—Moderate attack. 

Baltimore & Ohio, Pier 2, St. George—Moderate attack. 
New Brighton Pier—Light attack. 

Babcock & Wilcox Pier, Bayonne—Light attack. 


Pier 6, Standard Oil Company, Bayonne—Live specimens of Teredo were 
not found, but the borings were recent and some of the piles were practically 
destroyed by Limnoria and Teredo in five years, (Fig. 66). 

The results of the survey in this section show that structures on Staten 
Island and in the Kill van Kull are subject to attack, and that Teredo is 
present in sufficient numbers to do very considerable damage. A slight 
local intensification of the attack might do serious damage in a short time. 
On the Long Island shore fewer numbers of Teredo were found, and struc- 
tures on this side of the Upper Bay do not seem to be in as much danger, 
though they should be frequently inspected. Newark Bay and Arthur Kill 
do not seem to be in immediate danger of attack. 

Near the Narrows, Limnoria is fairly destructive. 


SECTION IV—AI] boards in this section showed Balanus, Bryozoa and 
Algae, indicating that the water conditions were probably suitable for 
Teredo and Teredo was found at practically all locations, either in the blocks 
or in timber removed from structures. 

At Perth Amboy and the Marine Basin, Gravesend Bay, the attack was 
comparatively light. It was heavier at Barren Island, Mill Basin, Sandy 
Hook, and on the Long Island Railroad trestle in Jamaica Bay, and very 


Fig. 65 


STATUTE MILES 


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NEW YORK 1923 


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NEW YORK HARBOR 271 


heavy at Sea Gate, Steeplechase Pier, Manhattan Beach, Atlantic High- 
lands and Princess Bay. 

Heavy Teredo attack was found both in blocks and timber at Fire Island 
and at West Sayville and Point O’ Woods in Great South Bay. Five-inch 
diameter piles used for fish nets are destroyed generally by August of each 
year. | 

The attack by Limnoria was moderate in Gravesend Bay and heavy in the 
vicinity of Coney Island and Sheepshead Bay. 

The activities of the borers cover practically this entire section, and ex- 
cept perhaps in the upper portion of Raritan Bay and in a small part of 
Gravesend Bay near the Marine Basin it would seem that protection of 
piles would be an economy, and that at some locations an unprotected struc- 
ture may not be expected to last more than a few years. On account of the 
’ variation in intensity of attack from year to year which is shown by the 
records in many ports, it appears that a heavy and destructive attack may 
be expected in any part of this section at any time. 


Period of Immunity—While results of the inspection of test blocks 
have shown larve landing on blocks as late as November, they do not seem 
to develop. It seems probable that no serious attack need be expected before 
July 1 and that growth generally stops in September. The period of prac- 
tical immunity from attack, therefore, is between nine and ten months, 
September to July. 


Water Analysis—Chemical analyses of the harbor water by determina- 
tion of temperature, salinity, hydrogen-ion concentration and oxygen con- 
tent were made at a number of points to find out what influence these con- 
ditions had on the activities of borers. A part of this work was done by the 
chemist of the Chief Engineer of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment 
of the City of New York. Analyses were also made by the Babcock & Wilcox 
Company at Bayonne, by the American Cyanamid Company at Warners, 
N. J., and the American Sugar Refining Company at Astoria. The Com- 
mittee established seven stations on piers, some where Teredo had been 
found and some where it had not, and analyses were made by a chemist 
employed by the committee who worked under the general supervision of 
Dr. F. E. Hale of the Mt. Prospect Laboratory of the Department of Water 
Supply, Gas and Electricity of the City of New York. The results of these 
analyses are shown in Figs. 68 to 77 inclusive. 


Currents—The movement of the currents in the rivers and Upper Bay 
is very complicated, and will be found discussed at length in the reports of 
the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, in several papers in the Transac- 
tions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and elsewhere. 

There are ample currents at all points to aid in the distribution of the 
larve of Teredo, but the water does not pass freely through the Narrows 
and the entrance to Long Island Sound. There are reversals of direction 
which hold the water in the Upper Bay through several tidal cycles before 
it passes out. This action renders less likely the spread of infestation from 
the Lower Bay and Staten Island, where it exists, to other parts of the 
harbor than if the water flowed freely in and out with the tides. 

This peculiar current action also tends to prevent the rapid evacuation of 
the pollution carried in the water and therefore concentrates this matter, 
allowing chemical and bacteriological action to take place. As has been 
demonstrated in other harbors, sewage pollution alone does not give im- 


mis HARBOR REPORTS 


munity from borers, since the wooden outfalls of sewers have been fre- 
quently destroyed, and wharves under which sewers empty have been 
heavily attacked. There is evidence, especially in the case of New York, 
Baltimore, Havana and other ports, to show that a harbor in which the 
amount of pollution is high, the rate of evacuation low, and where this con- 
dition is continued over a period of years, that substantial immunity exists. 
That this condition of immunity will not continue after the removal of the 
causes of pollution and the lapse of sufficient time for the cleansing of the 
harbor waters is clearly shown in the case of Havana, Cuba. 


Fic. 66—SECTION FROM A PILE DRIVEN IN STANDARD OIL PIER No. 6, 
BAYONNE, N. J., IN 1915 AND REMOVED IN 1922. 


Prior to the American occupation in 1898, this harbor was heavily pol- 
luted, and there were many very old timber structures in good condition. 
The installation of sewage disposal took away the sources of pollution, and 
after a few years the harbor purified itself, with the result that borers re- 
appeared. As an example, the concrete steps in front of the Custom House 
may be cited. These steps were built by the United States Army Engineers 
on a foundation of old piles, which were sound after many years’ service. A 
few years after the sources of pollution had been removed the steps failed 
on account of the destruction of the piles by borers. 

The necessity of sewage disposal plants for the New York area is recog- 


NEW YORK HARBOR BIS 


nized; some work of this kind has been done, and the construction of a com- 
prehensive system in the not far distant future must be expected. After 
this is done the waters of the harbor will undoubtedly cleanse themselves, 
and considering the fact that the waters of Long Island Sound and of the 
nearby small harbors on the south shore of Long Island and the coast of 
New Jersey are heavily infested by Teredo, it seems certain that the attack 
in the Lower Bay may be expected to become much heavier and that the 
structures in the Upper Bay and in the rivers will probably no longer enjoy 
the comparative immunity which they now possess. 


Fic. 67—SEcTION OF PILE FROM LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD PIER A, JERSEY CITY 
FROM WHICH LivE Teredo Navalis WERE EXTRACTED 


Pile Protection 


The City of New York contained 709 piers in 1920 (of which 267 were 
owned by the municipality), and there were probably at least 200 more on 
the New Jersey side. Of this great number of piers, in only very few cases 
are the piles protected from borers in any way, and so far as it has been 
possible to obtain records the only method of protection used has been that 


-of impregnation with creosote. 


Protected piles are not recorded on Manhattan Island except at Pier 9, 


274 HARBOR REPORTS 


Hudson River (foot of Rector Street), where some creosoted piles were used 
under a steel shed by the Central Railroad of New Jersey about 1915. None 
are known on the New Jersey shore above Jersey City, excepting in Ship- 
ping Board Piers 1, 2, 3 and 4, at Hoboken, nor between Throgs Neck and 
the Navy Yard on the Long Island shore. 

The coal piers of the Central Railroad of New Jersey at Communipaw 
were built in 1916 on creosoted piles, and the Lehigh Valley coal pier at 
Constable Hook was also built on creosoted piles at about the same time. 

The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey have the following structures 
built wholly or in part with creosoted piles: 


Pier 5, Bayonne—Built 1911-14—entirely creosoted piling. 

Pier 6, Lower Hook—Built 1915-17—entirely creosoted piling. 

Pier 4, Bayonne—Built 1897-98—12 outer bents creosoted piling. 

Pier 1, Bayonne—Built 1897-98—A few bents creosoted piling. 

Bulkhead—Pier 1 to Pier 5, Bayonne—built in 1918. This is a con- 
crete bulkhead faced with 6-inch by 12-inch creosoted sheathing. 

Bulkhead—Lower Hook Separator to west side of Pier 5, Lower Hook 
—hbuilt 1910-11. 


In the last mentioned bulkhead the specifications provided for short leaf 
yellow pine piles treated with creosote with a penetration of not less than 
1144 inches nor more than 2 inches, and in all other structures an impregna- 
tion of not less than 14 pounds per cubic foot was required. No specifica- 
tions for the oil are available. 

The concrete decked city pier at the foot of Canal Street, Stapleton, S. I., 
built about the same time, received the same treatment. 

One of the oldest recorded structures built of creosoted piles is the series 
of three dikes built in 1874-75 by the U. S. Engineer Department in the 
channel between Staten Island and New Jersey. These piles received a 
treatment below 12 pounds per cubic foot and were reported to have been 
only slightly damaged by borers up to 1922. 

The Richmond Light & Railroad pier at Rivington, built in 1893, with an 
addition in 1914, has creosoted piles. 

The Army pier at Fort Tilden, Rockaway Point, built in 1917, is on piles 
treated with 14 pounds of creosote per cubic foot, and has been attacked by 
Limnoria at joints. 


Substitutes for Timber 


There are comparatively few concrete and almost no metallic structures in 
this harbor in proportion to the total number of structures. 

The bulkheads built by the Municipal Dock Department at various times 
are generally concrete blocks of large size, air seasoned for a considerable 
period before being exposed to salt water. Various methods of construction 
conforming to what was considered good practice at the time was used. 
Generally these walls are reported to be in good condition. 

There are a number of concrete structures at the Navy Yard built at vari- 
ous times and by various methods, and many of them have deteriorated 
seriously, both on account of chemical action and the action of ice. 

Description of the construction methods and materials used in the vari- 
ous structures may be found in numerous papers in the Transactions of the 
American Society of Civil Engineers and other technical publications. 

The Standard Oil Company has been using a considerable number of con- 


275 


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282 HARBOR REPORTS 


DECEMBER 
5B 10 15 20 26 
‘DECEMBER 


NOVEMBER 
S&S 10 18.20 25 
NOVEMEER 


5S 10 15 20 28 _— 
OCTOBER 


SEPTEMBER 


5S 10 15 20 25° 


15 2028 
a 


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AUGUST 


5 10 15 20 25 


JULY 


JULY 


5 “MO 18 20 25 


JUNE 
JUNE 


5°10 15 20 25 


REFINING Co., BROOKLYN, N. Y. 


MAY 
S$ 10 18 20 28 


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“HARBOR REPORTS 


284 


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NEW JERSEY COAST AND DELAWARE BAY 285 


crete piles recently but they are not old enough to give valuable data as to 
their probable life in this vicinity. 


Conclusions 

1. Those sections of the harbor in the East, Harlem and Hudson Rivers 
and Newark Bay, are not apparently in any great danger of attack, though 
cases of sporadic attack may occur even here, especially near the Battery. 

2. The structures in the Upper Bay and Kill van Kull are, with the excep- 
tion of those on the Long Island shore, continuously under light attack, and 
a serious attack is possible at any time. 

3. Structures in the Lower Bay, including Jamaica Bay and Raritan Bay, 
are subject to attack from both shipworms and Limnoria, and any structure 
is likely to be very heavily attacked at any time. 

4. Structures in the Lower Bay should be protected and protection should 
be given structures on the west side of the Upper Bay and should be seri- 
ously considered for those on the east shore of North River. 

5. The record of concrete structures is not such as justifies the drawing 
of conclusions regarding them. 


NEW JERSEY COAST AND DELAWARE BAY 
Description 

The coast line of New Jersey and Delaware Bay (Fig. 78), is in general 
low and sandy, backed by woods and with many outlying sand shoals. The 
prevailing winds are westerly, subject, however, to many variations at all 
seasons. Tidal currents are weak, averaging at strength only about 0.2 
knots. 

Manasquan Inlet, about 17 miles south of Navesink Lighthouse, has a 
narrow, changeable entrance with a depth across the bar in 1914 of about 
three feet. - 

Barnegat City is located on Barnegat Inlet, the entrance to the bay of the 
same name. In this vicinity shoals with depths less than 30 feet extend 
2 miles off shore. Beach Haven is 14 miles southwest of Barnegat City, and 
20 miles north of Atlantic City. Atlantic City is located on the south side 
of Absecon Inlet, which is being improved to a channel depth of 12 feet 
and width of from 300 to 600 feet. The test board is located on the Atlantic 
City Steamship Terminal Wharf on Clam Creek, about two-thirds of a mile 
from Absecon Inlet. 

Test boards were installed at representative points in Delaware Bay— 
two at the entrance, Cape May and Lewes, and five distributed throughout 
the length of the bay on or near the channel. This channel is maintained at 
a minimum depth of 30 feet as far as Philadelphia, except for two isolated 
shoals—one with a depth of 29.7 feet on Baker Range, and the other with a 
depth of 28.9 feet on Liston Range. The mean rise and fall of tide at 
Delaware Breakwater is 5.1 feet with 4.5 feet as far as the Quarantine Sta- 
tion, at which point it becomes 6 feet. It is also 6 feet at the mouth of the 
Christiana River. 

The mean velocity of tidal currents is 2 knots on flood and 2.3 knots on 
ebb, the maximum velocity recorded being 3.2 knots during a southeasterly 
and 3.6 knots during a northwesterly gale, respectively. 


Marine Borers 
Past History—Both shipworms and crustacean borers have always been 
troublesome along the New Jersey Coast. An Army survey boat was dam- 


286 H. RBOR REPORTS 


aged by shipworms in 1903 vhile stationed for only six weeks in the 
Shrewsbury River. The Pennsylvania Railroad reports damage to its struc- 
tures shown in the table under “‘Methods of Protection.” 

In 1918 the West Jersey & Seashore Railroad protected the piles of the 
center pier of its Grassy Sound drawbridge near Wildwood on the Inland 
waterway with concrete casing. On account of the deterioration of the con- 
crete, the piles were attacked by marine borers and it was necessary to re- 
move all the old concrete in 1920 and to build new casings. 

An inspection made by this company in 1922 disclosed evidence of marine 
borer (shipworm) attack at the following locations: 


Pavilion” &.. oo <r Absecon. Inlet. setae saeunene a Atlantic City 

Pavillon 49h een Little Egg Harbor Inlet .... Longport, N. J. 
Buikhesia se Little Egg Harbor Inlet ....Somers Point, N. J. 
Bridges. acs. Weakfish Creek ........... South of Corson’s Inlet 
Bridg@Ge sate Middle Thoroughfare ...... South of Corson’s Inlet 
Bridget S45 cas Corson sc nletoeeacsn ae Corson’s Inlet 

Bridge veaeee. oe Ludlam’s Thoroughfare ....North of Sea Isle City 
Bridger oes ere eee Beach Thoroughfare ....... Atlantic City 
Bridvetredecee ee Townsend Inlet <i. essere Townsend Inlet 


In Delaware Bay both shipworms and crustacean borers are known to 
exist in the vicinity of Cape May and Lewes. The upper portion of the Bay 
seems to be free from shipworms. Limnoria, however, has been found at a 
point 80 miles above the entrance. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- 


lows: 
Bottom of | Bottom of 
Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
POG neieasal ta Neen ieee 77. ......| Ni J. Board of Com-= 
merce and Navigation] Aug. 16, 1922 0.0 6.0 
Barnegat City, N. J.—Sunset N. J. Board of Com- 
Hotel Dock ®:tra sn ee (holes ed oe merce and Navigation| Aug. 16, 1922 0.0 6.0 
Beach Haven, N. J.—Public N. J. Board of Com- 
Wharises. cect eee UStcn wee merce and Navigation| Aug. 21, 1922 1.0 6.0 
Atlantic City, N. J.—Atlantic N. J. Board of Com- 
Citys Lach eee SO separa merce and Navigation} Aug. 21, 1922 2.0 6.0 
Cape May—Delaware Naval Air 
Station Marine Dock......... YD-4010.. NOVY sh sce eres nce e ea AU eon 0.0 6.5 
Lewes, Delaware............... Pa-4..... Pennsylvania R.R. ..| Oct. OF 19220 ere 
Delaware Bay—14-foot Bank....] A-38..... Arm BAG eee Ree Nov. 17, 1922 1.0 8.0 
Delaware Bay — Miah Maull 
Liphthousess% sate ee eee A-39..... ATI Yoon once eee Nov. 16, 1922 9.0 6.0 
Delaware Bay—Elbow of the 
edges ty ie ah eee (A=4 Oe ae ATID WS, Sane Oke Nov. 16, 1922 9.0 11.0 
Delaware Bay—Reedy Island 
Quarantine... nde eee Ag47 oo [PATINA rape eae Nov. 16, 1922 17.0 10.0 
Delaware Bay—Mouth of Chris- 
tiana RIVer:.25. neni cee An4. 2. ae ATIN ia) e ica ee Nov. 17, 1922 5.0 10.0 


The test boards on the New Jersey coast were maintained only during the 
season of 1922 and therefore no comparison of the attack in the seasons of 
1922 and 1923 can be made, but it is reported that the attack in Barnegat 
Bay at the station of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station was 
much lighter in 1923 than in 1922. 

The results of the inspection of test blocks are as follows: 


No. 77—Teredo navalis in large numbers appeared on the first block to be 


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YAR SHAWAISG 

mWAISE eoraende Wart 


NEW JERSEY COAST AND DELAWARE BAY 287 


removed, and specimens reached an average length of 3 inches by October 
20, after which time there seemed to be no growth. Test blocks were thor- 
oughly honeycombed. Associated organisms were Bryozoa and Mytilus with 
a few specimens of Limnoria. 


No. 76—Teredo navalis attacked promptly and in two months the blocks 
were thoroughly honeycombed. The animals reached a length of over 3 
inches in the same time. Associated organisms were Balanus and Green 
Algae. 


Dr. Thurlow C. Nelson reports, when studying oyster culture in Barnegat 
Bay for the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, that he found one 
of the platforms used for collecting oyster spat to have been completely de- 
stroyed by Teredo navalis in five weeks. Dr. Nelson also reports the pres- 
ence of Bankia gouldi in Barnegat Bay. During the summer of 1921 when 
this damage was done by Teredo navalis the salinity of the water was un- 
usually high. 


No. 78—Teredo navalis attacked this board promptly, the first block after 
two weeks’ immersion containing large numbers. Specimens reached a 
length of about 3 inches before the end of the season of activity. Associated 
organisms were Bryozoa, Green Algae, and a few specimens of Limnoria. 


No. 80—The first block removed, after 19 days’ immersion, contained 50 
to 75 specimens of Teredo navalis from 1/16-inch to 44-inch in length, and 
within one month the maximum length had increased to 2 inches. These 
test blocks were thoroughly honeycombed in three months. 

Limnoria appeared in considerable numbers and the associated organisms 
were Balanus and Bryozoa. 


YD-401—Unfortunately, the Naval detachment left this station about one 
month after the board was immersed and only two blocks were received, 
both containing several immature shipworms. The growth of Balanus was 
heavy. +5 er 

Pa-4—No shipworms appeared on this board until August, 1923, ten 
months after the board was immersed, but one specimen of Bankia gould 
was found in the block removed August 11, 1923. Only a few animals were 
found, the longest being about 5% inches long. The associated organisms 
Balanus and Bryozoa, ordinarily indicating the possibility of shipworm at- 
tack, were found about six months before the first Bankia appeared. 

A-38 and A-39—These boards were lost through the breaking of moor- 
ings, and replaced twice. No organisms of any kind were found on the few 
blocks received. , 

A-40—Three boards were lost at this station, none of them remaining in 
service three months. No organisms were found on the first two, while the 
third, which was in service between June 5 and August 15, 1923, showed the 
associated organisms of Green Algae, Tubularia and Bryozoa (Lepralia), 
but no borers. 7 

A-41 and A-42—WNo life of any kind appeared on the 32 blocks received 
from these two stations. 


Methods of Protection 

Several of the piers at Atlantic City and other resorts have piles protected 
from borer attack by concrete jackets, removable wooden sheathing and 
other methods, but no definite service records were obtainable except that 


288 HARBOR REPORTS 


the City Engineer of Atlantic City states that l-inch creosoted sheathing 
boards are destroyed in ten years. 

The Pennsylvania Railroad (P. & B. H. R. R., P. & L. B. R. R. and 
W.J.&S. R. R.) reports the following structures: 


Original Rebuilt 


Location or Name Date Rebuilt | Creosoted No. of Present Condition 
Constructed imber Piles 

Br. No. 3.96, Manahawken, N. J... 1886 BN 1897 124 Fair. 

Trestle Br. No. 5719, Barnegat Bay. 1880 1885-1899 1899 3500 20 per cent attacked. 
Trestle Br. No. 3.40, Barnegat Bay.. 1886 As 1896-7-8 1564 Slight attack. 
Trestle Br. No. 4.31, Barnegat Bay.. 1886 ea 1897 60 Slight attack. 
Trestle Br. No. 4.54, Barnegat Bay.. 1886 ae 1897 . 160 Fair. 

drestle;Bre- Nov 4./ (2 ree 1886 1893 1897 288 Slight attack. 


The Pennsylvania Railroad also reports. that creosoted timber in service 
thirty years at Townsend Inlet had been attacked, but that no attack had 
been noticed on timber of more recent date. 


Substitutes for Timber 


There are a number of concrete and some metal structures at the various 
resorts in this district, but they are most of them exposed to the wave action - 
of the open ocean and are not therefore suitable for a study of the durability 
of concrete or metal in salt water. 


Conclusions 


All wooden structures in salt water on the New Jersey coast are liable to 
a destructive attack by shipworms. Piles may be destroyed in two or three 
years, and therefore if a structure of any importance is to be built the piles 
should be protected. 

The records furnished by the Pennsylvania Railroad indicate that well 
creosoted and undamaged piles may be expected to have an average life ex- 
ceeding twenty years. 

Probably on account of the shallow and consequently warmer water of the 
New Jersey coast the season of inactivity is shorter than in New York and 
New England. It may be expected to extend from about October 1 to 
June ‘15. 

On account of the difficulties experienced in maintaining the test boards 
in Delaware Bay the information is too fragmentary to permit any other 
conclusions than that shipworms are active and destructive at Cape May, 
and that Bankia gouldi is present at Lewes. 


BALTIMORE HARBOR AND VICINITY 

Marine Borers 

Past History—No authentic record of the finding in the past of either 
mollusecan or crustacean borers in Baltimore Harbor (Fig. 79), has come to 
the attention of the Committee. Marine borers have been known to destroy 
the pile supports of a bridge over the Severn River at Annapolis in four 
years’ time. A light attack on a pile bridge of the Pennsylvania Railroad 
over Bear Creek at Sparrows Point was reported as having occurred in 
1917, about 10 per cent of 100 piles being affected. Repairs to the Light- 
house Wharf at Washington, built in 1910, were made necessary on account 
of damage by Limnoria. 


BALTIMORE HARBOR 289 


Committee Investigations—On account of the installation of sanitary 
sewers and the consequent cleansing of the water, it was thought advisable 
to place test boards throughout the harbor. <A board was also placed at the 
Lighthouse Wharf, Washington, (Fig. 81). The boards installed were as 
follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Baltimore— 
Gancon Ore Pier sso osc. s Seas (PAH ee Pennsylvania R. R...| Sept. 1, 1922 Day ay “9°70 
CM TOMES GE Ier. e. . .le ccs cd A= eee Pennsylvania R. R. Sept. 1, 1922 12.0 10.0 
Bear Creek Bridge........... PAH i. ene Pennsylvania R. R. Sept. 1, 1922 1.5 ‘£5:0 
Hanover St. Bridge.......... BH-1..... Harbor Board. of Bal- 
CIMNOTEE ae Sererel oie ay) Wee At Ge, cece 
HMortuMGMenryn. .6 0. des 5: BH-2..... Harbor Board of Bal- 
CUINIOT One eae ieee HODtepoO 1 O22F eee onl Geek aa 
Coast Guard Depot, So. Balt...| CGD-1...} Coast Guard........ Oct. 1, 1922 0.5 8.0 
(Civiga Ci 3h poe e Sey ee B&O-5...}| Baltimore&OhioR.R.} Oct. 15, 1922 170 21.0 
(Mecust: FOmtienic sie ks chs es B&O-6...}| Baltimore&OhioR.R.| Oct. 15, 1922 1.0 14.0 
Standard Oil Plant.....5..... SO-4...... Standard Oil Co..... Novela O22) | i ee” | ee 
Mooust POM ae cerlecsa. doe os ASR AtoC} American Sugar Re- 
: fining Cow. jae - Marche 12.1923 |Memyeee cu) |) aeons 
Washington, D. C.— 
Lighthouse Wharf............| L-5-1..... Lighthouse Dept..... Oectas ltl G22 ales eran | wets atte 


With the exception of evidence of slight working by Limnoria on one of 
the A. 8. R. boards, no signs of either shipworms or crustacean borers have 
been noted on any of the blocks from these stations. Other organisms noted 
were Balanus, Bryozoa and Mytilus. No life of any kind was perceptible on 
blocks from boards PA-2, BH-2, B&O-5 and 6, SO-4, ASR-A and B and 
L-5-1. Figure 80 shows records of salinity, temperature, oxygen content 
and hydrogen-ion concentration observed by the American Sugar Refining 
Company at the site of their test boards. 


Methods of Protection 


Protection against marine borers in Baltimore Harbor has been consid- 
ered to be unnecessary. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—The Committee has collected no service records of concrete 
structures in Baltimore Harbor. 


Conclusions 


It would appear that protection against marine borers is unnecessary. in 
the immediate vicinity of Baltimore and Washington. Because of the puri- 
fication of the waters in the harbor of Baltimore, it seems somewhat doubt- 
ful whether this apparent immunity can be considered permanent and un- 
protected structures should receive careful and frequent inspection. Loca- 
tions at Sparrows Point and Annapolis should be looked on with more 
suspicion than those at Baltimore proper. The presence of Balanus and 
Bryozoa on board PA-3 indicates that the existence of shipworms is probably 
not impossible. 


NORFOLK HARBOR 
Description 
The approach to Norfolk Harbor (Fig. 82), is by way of Hampton Roads, 
sixteen miles west of Cape Henry, the connecting channel having a minimum 


290 HARBOR REPORTS 


depth of 38 feet. A channel dredged to a minimum depth of 40 feet leads 
from Hampton Roads south to the harbor proper which is located at the 
mouth of the Elizabeth River. The three branches of the river (Eastern, 
Southern and Western) form the waterfront of Norfolk, Berkeley, Ports- 
mouth, Port Norfolk and West Norfolk. The Naval Operating Base and 
important railway terminals are located on the dredged channel leading to 
Hampton Roads. Extensive waterfront structures consisting of the ter- 


Y 


N 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
BALTIMORE HARBOR 
MARYLAND 


Fie. 79 


minals of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, and the plant of the Newport 
News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company are located at Newport News 
directly across the Roads, at the mouth of the James River. 


The mean tidal range is 2.78 feet and the extreme range recorded is 6.9 
feet, observed at the upper end of the harbor at the U. S. Navy Yard. Tidal 
currents vary between the same limits from one to six miles per hour, the 
average velocity at the Naval Operating Base being approximately three 
miles per hour. 


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Fic. 81 


NORFOLK HARBOR 293 


Storms are frequent and of high intensity, the wind often reaching a 
velocity of ninety miles per hour. 


Into the Elizabeth River is dumped the entire sewage of Norfolk and 
Portsmouth, which, together with industrial wastes, pollute the water to a 
fairly high degree, including both oil and chemical pollution, the latter 
emanating principally from a number of fertilizer manufactories. The un- 
treated sewage of Newport News is discharged into Hampton Roads. 


a Sr ee MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
OL VY TEST BOARDS 
\NEWPORT NEWS ES HAMPTON ROADS 
A, PAE CY VIRGINIA 1923 
CES SZ 
BLES 
SLOSS IZ 5 : NAUTICAL MILES 


The temperature of the water varies from 30 to 85 deg. Fahr.; the salinity 
from 5 to 23 parts per thousand. (See Figures 83, 84, 85.) 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Shipworms and crustacean borers have always been 
present at Norfolk—the latter to a less extent—and of late years all timber 
which is destined to be exposed for any length of time has been protected. 
The greatest intensity of attack is found at Sewall Point, where a number 
of foundation piles were destroyed during the construction of a pier. The 
Gilbert Street Pier failed completely within four years after construction. 
Farther up the river at the Navy Yard the attack has been found to be less 


HARBOR REPORTS 


294 


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£76: 


NORFOLK HARBOR 297 


severe. However, the practice of protecting timber is general throughout 
all parts of the harbor. 

The average life of untreated timber has been variously estimated from 
two years at Sewall Point and the Naval Operating Base, to five years in 
the Eastern Branch of the Elizabeth River and sometimes as much as eight 
or ten years in the extreme inner harbor. 


Standard test boards were located as follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


: Department Date Board to | Board to 

Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Beusch Gk Bullkkheadior. oi a... 3: NAD= DOD eae AVVEe ae eT OED bo Lose |) 2. ..5e ol) see ae 
SOWA ORD ter aie che wine b atecsrs « WASTE yc IVY 6 Son teceait 43 Sete Sept. 12, 1922 0.5 20.5 
NOTA EN a G5 Ws LUY sce ek sn « ONGWWistepee lg: GoaVVicday. fe ce. Sept. 1, 1922 3.0 14.3 
Bulkhead, De Asie 2037 eee re NS-1..... NESoR yee oa Oct: 20, 1922 Ae 9.0 
Pintiers: Point... ..)........... a eee Oe LUWee Slew Rigens cies Oct. 1, 1922 2.0 Se 
pelo tlie Col i aes eee -2 PEGVGN + Gia e os Oct. 1, 1922 2.0 Seo 
JEST SO GaN OR Gee en OS ea GeO RR vad po Sey Sept. 1, 1922 L230: 9.5 

Newport News Shipbuilding and 

Drydockibiantys. si0c 2h. ..% INGEN S-L-LoaleN: IND. Doe lk snen - Jan. 30, 1923 Various Various 

Great Bridges Vac.,coo.si6a.. a: 2A ee I poin aes o homo A ee Sept. 16, 1922 10 6.8 


The results of inspections of test blocks are as follows: 


Y D-502—Only four blocks from this board were examined, the third re- 
moved December 20, containing the only shipworms, which proved to be 
Bankia gouldi. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 


VA-1—Many shipworms were found in block 2, removed October 17. The 
majority of these were Teredo navalis, the remainder Bankia gouldi. This 
proportion prevailed in the succeeding blocks in each of which the ship- 
worms numbered from 100 to 150. On February 15, 1923, the board, to- 
gether with the remaining original (Nos. 10-24) and the replacement (Nos. 
25-33) blocks was removed from the water and forwarded for examination, 
the result of which determined the end of the season of activity as occurring 
between October 15 and November 1. After the latter date growth practi- 
cally stopped, as was evidenced in finding live and healthy specimens of only 
2 mm. length on the date of examination, February 25. These specimens 
were found in blocks 25 and 26, placed October 1 and 15, respectively. 
Neither block 27, placed November 1, 1922, nor any of the succeeding blocks 
contained shipworms. A new board of revised type was placed, and the first 
shipworms (Bankia gouldi) appeared in block 4 removed July 7, 19283. 
Teredo navalis was found one month later. No specimens of Limnoria were 
found on any of the blocks. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa 
and Ostrea. 


NW-1—Shipworms first appeared in block 2, removed October 2, 1922. 
The succeeding blocks, 3 to 22 inclusive, contained ten specimens more or 
less, about equally divided between Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldt. 
Block 23, removed August 15, 1923, and succeeding blocks 24-27 inclusive, 
showed complete destruction by Bankia gouldi of the 1923 brood. A few 
specimens of Limnoria were found. Associated organisms were Balanus, 
Bryozoa and Ostrea. 

NS-1—These blocks, placed late in the season, showed no life of any kind 
until No. 5, removed February 3, 1923, was reached, on which there ap- 
peared a few barnacles. Block 10, removed August 4, 1923, and block 11, 


298 HARBOR REPORTS 


removed September 4, 1923, contained 10 and 50 specimens of Bankia gouldi 
respectively. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. No speci- 
mens of Limnoria were found. 


S-1—A single specimen of Teredo navalis belonging to the 1922 brood was 
found in block 15, removed May 16, 1928. Block 19 contained one specimen 
and block 20 seven specimens, the largest one being 10 inches in length. 
Fifty to 100 specimens of Bankia gouldi appeared in blocks 21, 22 and 23. 
Both blocks 24 and 25, removed October 1 and 16 respectively, were well 
filled with Bankia gouldi. No Limnoria was found. Associated organisms 
were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

S-2—One specimen of Teredo navalis was obtained from each of blocks 
10, 17, 18 and 19, the lengths of their tubes being 44, 21%4, 3 and 5 inches, 
respectively. These blocks were removed March 1, June 16, July 2 and July 
16, 1923, respectively. Block 20, removed August 1, contained 10 shipworms 
of large size—both Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldi in about equal propor- 
tions. Block 21, removed two weeks later, contained about 20 specimens. 
Blocks 22 and 23 contained each about 50 specimens of Bankia gouldi and 
few if any of Teredo navalis. Blocks 24 and 25, the latter removed October 
16, were filled with Bankia gouldit. No specimens of Limnoria were found. 
Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

CO-1—Twenty-four blocks in all were examined, the last one being re- 
moved August 16, 1923. With the exception of the first one, all blocks con- 
tained each from 4 to 16 shipworms about equally divided between Teredo 
navalis and Bankia gouldi. No specimens of Limnoria were found. Asso- 
ciated organisms were Ostrea, Balanus and Bryozoa. 

NNS-1—This test comprised 13 galvanized plates to each of which were 
attached a set of 48 test blocks 2 inches by 4 inches by 5 inches, 24 being of 
the sap and 24 of the heart wood of short leaf yellow pine. They were 
placed in the water January 30, 1928, too late for the 1922 and far in ad- 
vance of the 1923 season. The first shipworms appeared in the tenth series 
of blocks removed July 16, 1923, both Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldi at- 
tacking the heart and sap wood impartially. The attack of Bankia gouldi 
grew in intensity with the succeeding blocks, the final series (No. 16, re- 
moved October 1) being entirely filled with shipworms excepting those 
blocks which being at the top of certain plates were not continuously sub- 
merged. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

A-1, (Fig. 86)—Twenty-five blocks were examined, of which blocks 2, 6, 
8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21 and 22 each contained one specimen of Bankia 
gouldi. Associated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus, Bryozoa and numerous 
non-boring crustacea. 


From the foregoing, it will be seen that a period of immunity of about 
eight months between October 15 and June 15 may be expected in this terri- 
tory. This period will vary slightly from these dates according to the 
variations found in temperature. 


Salinity and temperature observations of the water of Norfolk Harbor 
were recorded by the Southern Railway Company and the Norfolk & West- 
ern Railway Company (Figs. 83, 84 and 85). Similar records were made 
by the Army at Great Bridge (Fig. 87), from which it was ascertained that 
there are long pericds of little or no salinity, a condition which has hitherto 
been considered impossible for the continued existence of Bankia gouldi, and 


NORFOLK HARBOR 299 


which necessitates a revision of previous ideas as to immunity from this 
species. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—The Seaboard Air Line finds piles treated with 
16 pounds per cubic foot to be in good condition after eight years’ service. 
The Norfolk & Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad finds 75 per cent of piles 
treated with 12 pounds per cubic foot to be in use after twenty years’ ser- 
vice. The Southern Railway has been using 16-pound treatment, but con- 
siders this treatment too light and that it should be increased to 20 or 22 
pounds. The New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk Railroad states that pine 
piles creosoted with 16 to 18 pounds of oil per cubic foot last 20 to 25 years 
—charred cypress piling from 15 to 18 years. The Atlantic Coast Line uses 
16 to 18 pounds; the Virginian Railway, 12 to 16 pounds, piles being found 
in good condition after 15 years’ service. The piles of the Norfolk & West- 
ern Railway docks, built between 1890 and 1892 at Lambert’s Point, were 
_ treated with approximately 22 pounds of creosote, and analysis of three pile 
sections cut from piles in these piers in 1922 showed an oil content of from 
0.9 pound to 4.2 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. Two of them had been 
attacked by Bankia gouldi, while the third, which was cut from a point 
above low water, was not attacked. The Norfolk Southern Railroad uses 20 
pounds; the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, 16 pounds. The experience of the 
Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. leads it to conclude that full- 
cell treatment is most successful, prolonging the useful life of some piles to 
20 years. This company has experimented also with “Carbolineum,” ‘Reeds 
Wood Preserver,” copper paint and heavy red lead, the former two having 
no noticeable effect and the latter two good until pierced. The U. S. Light- 
house Service uses piling impregnated with 20 pounds of creosote oil to the 
cubic foot for all Teredo-infested waters of this district. 


Armor—Previous to the adoption of the practice of creosote impregna- 
tion, the Lighthouse Service covered all untreated piling for use in this dis- 
trict with copper, yellow metal or galvanized sheet iron. Sheet steel was 
used on the aprons at the entrance to Dry Dock No. 2, U. S. Navy Yard, to 
protect untreated timber. The metal is now said to be destroyed and the 
timber much affected by borers. 


Substitutes for Timber 
Iron and Steel—The following table shows the service record of metal 
supports: 


Location Structure Date Built Kind of Supports Present Condition 
Fort Monroe, Va.}| Main Wharf..... 1889 Cast iron screw piles andj Good. Some replacements 
columns of columns broken by 
: vessels. 

Fort Monroe, Va.| Mine Wharf..... 1905 and 6} Cast iron columns covering cre- 

osoted piles cut off near bot- ; 

LAO OOU SC: cAFioeen SEER Wehr er, Selo s Good. No repairs made. 
Lambert’s Point..| N.& W. Ry. Pier 2 1892 12-in. wrought iron piles on 4- ’ 

foot cast iron bases......... Good. No repairs made. 


Concrete—Concrete has been employed by the Bureau of Yards and 
Docks, Corps of Engineers, Railways, etc. The Lighthouse Service has dis- 
continued the use of reinforced concrete piles because of the first cost and 


HARBOR REPORTS 


500 


98 “SIA 


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302 HARBOR REPORTS 


the weakening of the piles by corrosion of the reinforcement. The struc- 
tures reported are shown in the table below: 


Date 
Location Structure Built Present Condition 
Lambert’s Point. ..| N. & W. R. R. Coal Pier 3— 3 in. steel plate No revairs required. Corrosion of 
cylinders filled with concrete....,........ 1901 steel plate has not yet exceeded. 
1-32 in. 
Lambert’s Point. ..]| Steel cylinders filled with concrete......... 1913 | Good. No repairs made. 


Western? Branch of 
Blizabeth  River.clteaine ast bOVe scar: cree chee ia oie ace 1898 | No repairs made. Deterioration 
of cylinders less than 10 per cent. 


Cape_Charles...... City Pier. Reinforced sheet piling bulkheads.| 1910 | Good. No repairs made. 
Houthpate.. 7a see Terminal Pier. Reinforced concrete piles 
pK sW bee ¢ liebe EA Rete, OL TON be ae” obi 1917 No repairs—apparently in good 
condition. 
U.S. Navy Yard...} Reinforced concrete walls poured between un- No deterioration due to exposure 
treated timber sheet piling............... 1900 to salt water noticed. 


U.S. Navy Yard...| Precast reinforced sheet piles made from 34] 1918-20 | No sign of deterioration noticed. 
in. gravel—reinforcing both plain and de- 
formed. Mixture 124 and 11:2. Rein- 
forcing cover 2 to 24% in. Exposed to salt 
water from mud line to M. L.W., approxi- 
mately 30inches! se ee eee 
Naval Operating 


Base’, /.. See Seaplane runways, solid fill type with concrete] 1919-20 | Slab surfaces badly eroded by 
side walls carried below mud line and sup- combined effect of salt water, 
ported on untreated pine piles. Runways of wave action and abrasion from 
reinforced concrete 6 in. slab—concrete steel wheels of seaplane carriage 
beams on untreated pine piles buried in sand trucks. The aggregate has ra- 
fill; constructed in dry inside steel coffer- veled out to a maximum depth 
dam. Cured 15 days. Mixture 1:2:4 washed of approximately 3 in. over con- 
river gravel and sand, and Portland cement; siderable area, the section be- 
of quaking consistency. Slab exposed to sea tween high and low water being 
water. Side walls of same material of particularly affected. 


1:2144:5 mixture, cured 30 days before re- 
moval.of forme... +3 nee ee ee eee 
NavaljOperating 
BASE aie aterm ee Precast reinforced concrete sheet piles 10 in.| 1919 Condition excellent. 
x 16 in. Aggregate washed river gravel and 
Portland cement mixture 1:2:4 of quaking}. 
consistency. Piles kept moist 7 days 
after casting—then air seasoned 30 to 90 
days. Some spalling during driving........ 


Work on Municipal Terminal was started April, 1922. The first unit 
which is under construction consists of a marginal wharf 1,400 feet long; 
a pier 1,250 feet long and 494 feet wide; a grain elevator with storage 
tanks; drier, and conveyor galleries; together with the necessary railroad 
yards, roadways, fire, water and electric services. 

The marginal wharf consists of reinforced concrete bearing piles and a 
reinforced concrete sheet pile wall under the inner face of the platform. 

The pier is of the solid fill type surrounded on three sides by a reinforced 
concrete platform supported on reinforced concrete piles and with reinforced 
concrete sheet piling under the inner face of the platform. 


The concrete piling in connection with these structures has just been 


completed. The depth of water provided around the pier and in front of the 
marginal wharf is 35 feet below M.L.W. The piles were cast on shore, and 
after being cast were allowed to season in air for a minimum of thirty days 
and were then driven with steam hammer pile drivers and hydraulic jets 
where necessary. The mixture used in casting the piles was 1 part Port- 
land cement, 114 parts of clean, sharp, washed pres and 3 parts of clean 
washed quartz gravel screened to pass through a *4-inch ring. Fresh water 


via 


BEAUFORT AND CAPE FEAR RIVER 303 


from the Norfolk City Water Works was used in mixing. The concrete was 
conveyed from the mixer to the forms by concrete buggies and was thor- 
oughly spaded after being dumped into the forms. The piles were kept cov- 
ered with cloths which were kept dampened for the first ten days after 
same were cast. The first concrete pile in this structure was driven July, 
1922, and the driving has continued practically continuously since this date. 
There is no evidence to date of any defective work in connection with this 
piling. Untreated timber used for construction purposes in connection with 
this work was badly attacked by borers during the construction period. 


Conclusions 


Unprotected timber structures should be expected to last from 2 to 5 
years, except in the inner harbor, where a somewhat longer life is probable. 


A period of immunity from attack of molluscan borers may be expected 
from November to June, inclusive. 


Piles creosoted to refusal should have an average life of 20 years. 

Wrought and cast iron show an excellent record, but the oldest structure 
recorded being only 35 years old, no estimate of average life is possible. 

With one exception, the unprotected concrete is of too recent construction 
to justify conclusions as to its serviceable life. 


BEAUFORT (N. C.) HARBOR AND CAPE FEAR RIVER 
Description 


Beaufort Harbor (Fig. 88), is the southern terminus of the Norfolk- 
Beaufort section of the inland waterway to which it is connected by a 
dredged channel of 12 feet minimum depth. At the entrance to the harbor, 
the tidal currents run with considerable velocity, especially during spring 
tides, and follow generally the direction of the channel. The Norfolk South- 
ern Railroad test board is located on its bridge crossing this channel about 
equidistant from the towns of Beaufort and Moorhead City. The mean rise 
and fall of tide at this point is 3 feet. The Chemical Warfare Service has 
in place two test boards located near the site of the Marine Laboratory of 
the Bureau of Fisheries on Pivers Island. 


Marine Borers 

Past History—Shipworms were known to exist at Beaufort and at the 
mouth of Cape Fear River. The Army engineers estimate the life of un- 
protected piling as one season at the former and usually two seasons at the 
latter place. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as 
shown in the following table: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Bridge over Newport River..... NBe27 cS NEE ee a ene Nov. 1, 1922 1.0 9.0 
LE RPE TS 006 oe CWS-1...| Chemical Warfare 
Dervice eee. ena ae JUNES, LIZ, ie wai Ie 8. aretee 
Exhieigc al a] faa ts by Oe 5 oe CWS-2...| Chemical Warfare 


aUcetiaseyonte =. Pe) ey ie: fruwire) 


Dervicean nos Seer June 8, 1923 


304 HARBOR REPORTS 


Salinity and temperature observations recorded by the Bureau of Fisher- 
ies at Pivers Island are shown on Fig. 89. 

No test boards were installed in the Cape Fear River. 

The result of inspection of the test blocks was as follows: 


NS-2—The first block, removed on November 15, showed 20 specimens of 
Limnoria and 4 larval shipworms. Later blocks showed only a small number 
of shipworms (Bankia gouldi), with a length not exceeding %@ inch, until 
block No. 8, removed April 5, showed about 50 specimens of Bankia gould 
with a length of 1144 inches. The block removed one month later was filled 
with Bankia gouldi with a maximum length of about 4 inches. 

On account of the destruction of the blocks the board was removed May 
16, 1923, and replaced by a new board of the 1923 model. The examination 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
BEAUFORT HARBOR 
NORTH CAROLINA 19235 


Hic. 8& 


of the old board showed that the season of activity for Bankia gouldi ended 
prior to December 1, 1922, and that of Teredo navalis began about May 1, 
1923. 

The new board, placed May 16, showed almost immediate attack by 
Bankia gouldi and Teredo navalis, and by July 7 the block was filled 95 per 
cent with Bankia and 5 per cent with Teredo, the longest Bankia being 
about 3 inches and the longest Teredo about 2 inches. 

Some specimens of Limnoria were also found as well as the following as- 
sociated organisms: Balanus, Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula), Anomia, 
Algae and Gasteropods. 


CWS-1—Attack by Bankia gouldi was immediate and block 3, removed 
September 7, was completely filled with shipworms, principally Bankia 


305 


BEAUFORT AND CAPE FEAR RIVER 


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306 HARBOR REPORTS 


gouldi, though several specimens of Teredo (Psiloteredo) sigerfoosi were 
found. The block removed October 10 was completely riddled and a larger 
proportion of Teredo sigerfoost was found than in the preceding block. 
Associated organisms were the same as in NS-2, except for the absence of 
Algae and the presence of Ostrea. 


CWS-2—Animals found were about the same as in CWS-1, as were the 
accompanying organisms. 

Martesia was also found in test timbers maintained by the Chemical War- 
fare Service. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote impregnation has been in general use and when sufficient absorp- 
tion is obtained has proved fairly satisfactory. Piles treated with 20 pounds 
of dead oil tar per cubic foot were found to be in perfect condition after 20 
years’ service, and 14 pounds per cubic foot was found to be insufficient, 
piles so treated and driven in 1890 in the Engineers’ Wharf at Southport 
having been found to be badly damaged in 1901. 

““Protexol”’ was used for impregnating sheathing for the wooden hull of 
the floating plant belonging to the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. Records 
show that, whereas unprotected sheathing lasts only one season, when so 
treated, three to five years’ service is obtained. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Cast Iron—About the year 1900, the Quartermaster Department, U. S. A., 
built a wharf at Fort Caswell, supported by cast iron piling, which is re- 
ported to be in good condition at present. 


Concrete—In 1912-13 the Lighthouse Service built 32 reinforced con- 
crete range light structures in the Cape Fear River, distributed between its 
mouth and Wilmington and exposed to water of ocean salinity, diminishing 
to fresh water at a point below Wilmington. The substructures consist each 
of four reinforced concrete piles, supporting a tower foundation of four re- 
inforced concrete beams, strengthened at their juncture by reinforced con- 
crete braces, and were built at the same time and with the same materials 
under the following specifications: 


“PILES.—The four reinforced concrete piles are to be 14 inches square 
throughout their length with corners chamfered 2 inches, except at the 
lower end, where the piles are to be tapered for a distance of 10 feet to an 
8-inch square end. 

“Each pile is reinforced with four 1-inch and four %-inch round steel 
rods running the entire length of the pile, with the exception that the 
14-inch rods are to be stopped off where the pile starts to taper. The 
1-inch rods must be bound together with %4-inch round steel hoops, having a 
close loop around each rod and being spaced 2 feet apart throughout the 
length of the pile; also, 14%4-inch iron jet pipe shall be run through center 
of pile the entire length, as shown. 


“BEAMS—The four concrete beams will be reinforced with three 1-inch 
round steel rods, placed not less than one inch from the lower surface and 
with one %-inch round steel rod in the center, and not less than one inch 
from the top surface. The beam reinforcement will be 2 inches shorter 
than the width of the structure. 


“CONCRETE—The concrete is to be mixed in the proportion of 1:2:4, 
using the best grade of Portland cement, clean, sharp, coarse sand and 
%-inch crushed granite. Each pile must be cast in one operation and 
carefully tamped, and the forms must not be removed in less than 24 hours. 


BEAUFORT AND CAPE FEAR RIVER 307 


The pile must be wet every day for 2 weeks after the forms are removed 
and must be 2 months old before they are driven. 


“ERECTION—The piles are to be jetted or driven in place with their 
heads exactly in the same horizontal plane and spaced as shown on draw- 
ings. In case the water jet is used, the water must be shut off and the 
last 12 inches driven by hammer properly cushioned. 

“The beams and braces must be cast in one operation, and the side forms 
must be allowed to remain in place for at least 24 hours; bottom for two 
weeks. At the end of that time the superstructure may be erected.” 


Concerning the present condition of these structures, H. L. Beck, super- 
intendent, 6th District, Lighthouse Service, reports under date of October 
10, 1922, as follows: 


“The structures are inspected at least once a year. Several very careful 
inspections have been made, after which reports were submitted to the 
Bureau of Lighthouses in Washington. In 1914 no deterioration was noted. 
On February 4, 1916, the following report was made: ‘No deterioration of 
the piles and concrete foundation has been noted to date. About half of 
these structures are in fresh water under favorable conditions for their 
preservation. The characteristic method of deterioration noted in some 
other structures in the district, namely, the cracking of the piles and beams 
along the reinforcement, has not become apparent in any of the Cape Fear 
structures to date.’ ” 

“In June, 1917, the inspection reports indicated in general that the 
structures in the lower part of the river were more or less cracked in the 
piles and under surfaces of the sills, while those in the upper part of the 
river were in good condition. The cracks in the piles apparently did not 
extend below the water line and were usually on the chamfers of the piles 
or on the faces close to the chamfers and about over the main reinforce- 
ment. Several piles were scraped of marine growth to see if the cracks 
extended below the water level. The cracks in the under side of the sills 
were usually over the main reinforcement, and in some cases appeared as. 
ae flake off. There were practically no cracks on the upper sides cf 
the sills.” 

“T have inspected a number of the structures within the past year, but 
made no detailed record of their condition. In general, those in the fresh 
water of the upper river are still practically as good as when erected where 
they have not been damaged by collision or ice. As one goes down the 
river, the cracks are fine where the water is only slightly salt, but they 
become wider and more serious where the practically undiluted sea water 
has access to the structures near the mouth. Here the reinforcing rods are 
exposed and rusted away in places. Pieces of concrete have cracked off 
in places.” 

“Deterioration is slowly progressing, being confined in general to cor- 
rosion cracks. These concrete substructures are still amply strong to sup- 
port the skeleton steel superstructures.”’ 

“When demolished structures (two destroyed by collision and one by 
ice in the winter of 1917-18) were rebuilt, creosoted piles were used in 
preference to reinforced concrete piles. The reasons for the change to 
creosoted pine piles were: (a) lower first cost, (b) quicker erection, (c) 
better ability to withstand the shock of collision when struck by floating 
objects, including vessels navigating the river, and (d) sufficient durability 
to meet requirements.” 


Conclusions 


Marine borer attack at Beaufort is heavy, and the animals may be ex- 
pected to be active from May 1 to December 1. Structures erected after 
December 1 and before May 1 will not be seriously attacked before the 
latter date. 

The service given by the reinforced concrete piles in the structures of the 
Bureau of Lighthouses in the Cape Fear River .illustrates clearly the differ- 
ence in the effect of fresh and salt water on reinforced concrete. 


308 HARBOR REPORTS 


All wooden structures at Beaufort and near the mouth of the Cape Fear 
River should be protected against borers if a life of over one year is desired. 


CHARLESTON HARBOR 
Description 


The entrance to Charleston Harbor (Fig. 90), is between two converging 
jetties which extend nearly three miles seaward across the bar through 
which there was, in 1921, a straight channel of 30 or more feet at low water, 
with a least width of 400 feet. The city of Charleston is situated at the 
head of the harbor and at the confluence of the Cooper and Ashley Rivers, 
about 714 miles from the ocean. The principal wharves are on the west 
bank of the Cooper River, which forms the eastern waterfront of the city. 
There is an available depth of 30 feet for about 9 miles up the Cooper River 
to the port terminal, a point three miles above the Navy Yard. In the 
Ashley River there is a channel of 20 feet depth and 100 feet minimum 
width as far as Duck Island, at which point the depth decreases to 7 feet at 
mean low water. The mean range of tide at Fort Sumpter is 5.2 feet, and 
at the Navy Yard, 5.1 feet. The maximum observed velocities of the tidal 
current at ebb strength are about 2.6 knots between the jetties; 3 knots be- 
tween Fort Sumpter and Fort Moultrie; 2 knots off the eastern front of 
Charleston and 4 knots at the Navy Yard. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Both shipworms and crustacean borers are present in 
these waters. Practically all reports agree that unprotected timber lasts 
normally about two years, and is therefore employed only for temporary 
structures, and for fender systems and dolphins where it appears that 
mechanical injury is likely to anticipate destruction by borers. 


Committee Investigations—In order to make proper identifications of 
the different kinds of borers and to ascertain the rate of destruction and 
period of immunity if there were such, standard test boards were installed 
as follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 

Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line} M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Hortasumpterest so one eee A-13. Army?* ieee eee Sept. 6, 1922 4.0 11.0 
Standard Oil Refinery..........| SO-5. Stas aed OinliGoreanes Novwil (1922 ose oa ae ae ee ete 
Southern Railway Docks........ S=3 Stee. Southern Railway Co.} Oct. i 1922 0.0 16.0 
WS Navy Yard=,,n.cseeeee ne YD-601 24 Navy. eee Sept. 1, 1922 Gre 26.9 


The results of the examination of the test blocks are as follows: 


A-13—The first block, removed September 16, showed a few specimens of 
Limnoria and several hundred minute specimens of Bankia gouldi; the 
next block, removed October 2, was half filled, the longest animal being 4 
inches long, and the next block, removed October 23, was completely honey- 
combed. Teredo navalis was also found in small numbers, the largest found 
up to January 15, 1923, being 5 inches long. A very few specimens of 
Martesia were also found. The board was replaced by a new one on Feb- 
ruary 16, 1923, and this board was lost and replaced in July. This last 
board was examined in October, 1923. It is evident that the decline in the 
activity of Bankia gouldi begins about September 15 and has entirely 


CHARLESTON HARBOR 309 


stopped between November 1 and 15, but the beginning of the breeding 
season was not definitely determined on account of the loss of the board. 
Limnoria was destructive. The associated organisms were Balanus, Bry- 
ozoa and Algae. 


S0-5—The first Bankia gouldi appeared in block 7, removed February 15, 
1923, and some specimens had reached a length of 14% inch by March 15. 
The first Teredo bartschi appeared in the block removed May 15, which 
contained also two specimens of Bankia gouldi with lengths of 4 inches. 
This number was doubled by July 15, and the block of August 15 was 
entirely filled. The number of Bankia gouldi found was small until the 
period between June 15 and July 1, and the proportion of Teredo bartschi 
was small. 

Limnoria was present in considerable numbers. The associated organ- 
isms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula), and Algae. 


S-3—The first Bankia gouldi and Teredo navalis appeared on the block 
removed November 17. The block removed January 31, 1923, contained 
about 50 shipworms, the largest of which was a specimen of Bankia gouldi 
nearly 5 inches long. The first Teredo bartschi was found May 1, and the 
block removed June 1 was completely filled with Teredo bartschi, indicating 
that its season of activity which commenced about May 1 was over before 
the board was placed. Later blocks were entirely destroyed. 

Limnoria attack was heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus and 
Bryozoa. 


YD-601—The second block, removed October 2, contained four speci- 
mens of Bankia gouldi, one of them 1 inch long. This number increased to 
20 on the next block, and remained about constant until December 6, when 
about 50 were found, the length being up to 4 inches. A few specimens of 
Teredo navalis also appeared. On January 6 five specimens of Teredo 
bartschi with a length of from 1 inch to 2 inches were found, in addition to 
the other species. Block 11, removed February 22, contained about 100 
shipworms of the three species. The board was replaced at this time by 
one of the 1923 model. The first shipworms (Bankia gouldi) appeared 
with a maximum length of about 2 inches in the block removed July 5. This 
length had increased to about 5 inches by August 2, at which time Teredo 
navalis of the same length was found. The maximum length one month 
later was over 11 inches. Teredo bartschi was present in small numbers. 

There was a fairly heavy attack of Limnoria; associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. 

Salinity and temperature observations were recorded monthly by the 
Navy at YD-601. The results are shown on Fig. 91. 


Field Tests—An exhaustive test to determine the value of copper wire 
and strips was made by the U. 8S. District Engineer and will be found re- 
ported in Chapter II, page 11. 

A similar test of iron wire and strips was made by the Seaboard Air 
Line, the results of which will be reported later. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—This method of protection is quite generally 
employed with varying results. Pine piles supporting the Charleston 
Lighthouse Depot, treated with 18 pounds of creosote per cubic foot in the 
piles and 14 pounds in the braces, driven in 1916, showed no damage until 


310 HARBOR REPORTS 


1920. An inspection made July 3, 1922, disclosed serious damage to the 
bracing by Limnoria. The Superintendent of the 6th District says: ‘The 
creosoted piles have not been seriously damaged so far, but a good many of 
them have been attacked. In some cases there are areas as large as 8 or 4 
square feet that have been attacked by Limnoria, but the borings do not go 
into the piles more than %4 inch. In smaller areas the attack has gone 
deeper.” 

The Navy has experienced both good and bad results with creosote treat- 
ment, one lot of piles which were driven in 1911 having been found un- 
serviceable in 1914. Piles with 18 pounds’ treatment driven in the Southern 
Railway Company’s coal pier in 1914-1915 were found in 1922 to have been 
severely attacked, and piles with 22 pounds’ treatment in the Clyde Line 
docks driven in 1912 were being attacked in 1922, with a prospective service 
of only two more years. 

The dry dock pontoons of the Charleston Dry Dock and Machine Co. were 
sheathed in 1919 with a layer of ship felt covered by 1-inch creosoted lumber, 
12 pounds’ treatment. All sections of the dock have been inspected during 
19238, and the sheathing found to be in practically the same condition as 
when applied. 


Armor—Both copper and yellow metal have been used as sheathing, 
proving effective as long as intact. 

The Charleston Dry Dock & Machine Company drove about 600 yellow 
pine piles for their dock at Charleston, S. C., in the fall of 1918. These 
piles were studded with roofing nails 1 inch long with %-inch heads, the 
spacing being obtained by using 14-inch mesh chicken wire as a template. 
The nails were driven by negro boys at from 10 to 15 cents per hour. The 
cost, including the material, ran about 40 cents per linear foot, of which 
about 22 cents was labor. A photograph of a section of timber cut from 
one of the piles so treated, and pulled in September, 1922, is shown in Fig. 
22, page 102. Under the microscope this specimen shows evidence of having 
been penetrated by 15 shipworms. On the edges four burrows are exposed. 
The invasion was apparently stopped by the repellent qualities of the spread- 
ing iron rust. 

Untreated piling in these waters lasts not to exceed two years. 

A protective coating has been successfully tried out at the U. S. Navy 
Yard in the construction of building ways. Immediately after the piles 
were placed, 20 d nails were driven in here and there about ten inches on 
centers, and a sheet metal casing placed about the piles allowing about two 
or two and one-half inch clearance around the circumference and carried 
down to approximately 12 inches below the mud line. This space was then 
filled in with 1:2:4 concrete with 5 per cent hydrated lime. The only fail- 
ures. were those in which the concreting was not carried deep enough into 
the mud. 


Substitutes for Timber 

Metal—There is a cast iron pile wharf at Sullivans Island in front of 
old Fort Moultrie, which was constructed in 1907 and is still in good con- 
dition. No special record of this wharf has been kept. One or two of the 
brace piles at the end of the wharf have given way, due to rusting of the 
flange bolts. 


Concrete—No data on concrete have been collected. 


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Conclusions 


The period of inactivity so far as the growth of the animals is concerned 
is less clearly defined than in other harbors. It appears that while some 
growth occurs during the winter, the period of comparative inactivity 
extends from about the 15th of November to about May 1. 

Timber piles require the best possible protection in order to avoid heavy 
losses—20 to 22 pounds creosote impregnation can be expected to give an 
average life of about 10 to 12 years. 

The wharf of the Charleston Dry Dock and Machine Company indicates 
the possibility of its method of protection giving long life, based on the 
results of the first five years, since the iron impregnation will increase in 
depth with time and therefore become more effective. It would be advisable 
in using this method to drive the piles early in the period of inactivity of 
the borers (November or December) so that the rust incrustation may be 
as heavy as possible before the borers become active in the spring. These 
piles should not be allowed to dry out and check before being driven. 

Sufficient time has not yet elapsed since the construction of this dock to 


show definitely its service life, but its present condition indicates that this 
process has much promise. 


SAVANNAH AND BRUNSWICK 
General Description 


From the entrance to the Savannah River (Fig. 92), about 15 miles 
below the City of Savannah, the river is being improved to obtain a depth 
of 80 feet with a general width of 500 feet to the Quarantine Station; 
thence 26 feet depth and 400 feet width to the Seaboard Air Line Railway 
Bridge; and thence a depth of 21 feet and width of 300 feet to Kings Island, 
a total distance of 24 miles. In 1921 there was a minimum depth of 21 
feet from the sea to the City. The mean velocity of the ebb current at 
strength ranges from 1.1 knots at Savannah to 234 knots per hour at the 
entrance to the river, and that of the flood is about 4% knot at Savannah and 
2 knots at the entrance. The mean rise and fall of tide at Fort Scriven is 
6.9 feet and at Fort Jackson 6.6 feet. 

The average distance from the terminals of the various railway and 
steamship companies at Brunswick (Fig. 93) to the open sea is about 12 
miles, with a controlling depth of 30 feet at mean high water. The tidal 
range at the entrance bar is 6.6 feet and within the harbor 7.0 feet. The 
tidal currents have an estimated velocity of one to two knots per hour. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—At the City of Savannah, the water is said to be fresh 
and there is no record of the presence of marine borers. Near the mouth of 
the Savannah River and in Brunswick harbor proper, both Limnoria lig- 
norum and shipworms are present. The life of unprotected timber is esti- 
mated from past experience to be generally not over 2 years. 


Committee Investigations—The Savannah River appeared to offer ideal 
territory for determining the boundary line beyond which marine borers 
would not thrive. Accordingly nine boards were installed at fairly regular 
intervals from the mouth of the river at Fort Scriven to the Central of 
Georgia Railway terminals. It was the plan of the Committee to study the 
physical and chemical condition of the water on either side of the point of 


313 


SAVANNAH AND BRUNSWICK 


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314 HARBOR REPORTS . 


farthest advance when it had been definitely determined at the end of the 
present season. Boards installed in both Savannah and Brunswick harbors 
appear in the following list: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line . W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Savannah River— 

Fort, Scriven). ..0 oss. cates ae A-15..... ATINGY ol F5 acae eee Sept. 15, 1922 1.5 7.5 
Lazaretto Creek—Central of Ga. 

Ryo Crossing fee oon nas coe CG=2 ce Central of Ga. Ry...}| Sept. 15, 1922 2.0 10.0 
Quarantine Dock. cu ene AZT Gino ATT s Graces, come Sept. 15, 1922 4.5 9.5 
Long Island Crossing........... ART7e we, ATINYV Se cerca ee eee Sept. 15, 1922 1.0 #271 
Lower Dolphin jsos-4ese-2 + ee A-18..... ATA Yi) eet ne eee Sept. 15, 1922 2.8 9.6 
Gite HOUSE) satin <a alee ne A-19..... ATING LS. nice ae ieee Sept. 15, 1922 0.8 9.6 
Upper Dolphin= (2.50... eee Aa20 5 ee Arnry ois eee Sept. 15, 1922 1.8 13.8 
Mort JaCksoOn iia ci aes eee eee DON SR Be A ATMYS sa ecice eee Sept. 15, 1922 4.4 8.4 
Berth No. 8—Cent. of Ga. Rail- 

wey Terminal $7.28 ou ee CGaliaes. Central of Ga. Ry...| Sept. 15, 1922 9.0 114.0 
Brunswick Hartor— 

A.B. & A. Ry. Terminal..... Va oh) AB ia6cAgeRyi cere Aug. 1, 1922 2.0 10.0 

A.C. L. Ry. Terminal........ AGE tat] pan Ge Ledge eds Aug. 29,1922 |{ 18-8 Ce 

Turtle River Docks—Southern 

Riv Con ts toe eee ate ee a4 Foe cat Southern Ry........ Oct. 1, 1922 SG 0.5 


*Board suspended in horizontal position. 


The results of the inspection are as follows: 

A-15—Block 2, removed October 16, contained several hundred specimens 
of Bankia gouldi and destruction proceeded so rapidly that it became neces- - 
sary to transfer the blocks to a concrete board, which was done at the time 
of the removal of the 6th block, December 16. About 1 per cent of the 
shipworms found was Teredo navalis. On March 1, 1923, the remaining 
original blocks (10-24) and replacement blocks (25-34) were all removed 
and subjected to a careful examination. Among other results of this ex- 
amination, the season of activity was determined to have ended between 
November 1 and November 15 and it was also found that after this date 
further growth of living shipworms ceased. A new test specimen of 1923 
model was installed, the first block of which to show shipworms (Bankia 
gouldi) was No. 4, removed July 12, after having been in the water one 
month. Teredo navalis appeared one month later. Associated organisms 
were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

CG-2—Shipworms first appeared in block 2, removed October 16. Suc- 
ceeding blocks (3-9) contained each from 25 to 100 specimens of Bankia 
gouldi and 2 to 4 of Teredo navalis, the rate of destruction being con- 
siderably less rapid than at A-15. An examination of the old board and 
blocks, removed February 15, confirmed the date of the ending of the sea- 
son of activity determined for A-15. Associated organisms were Balanus, 
‘Ostrea and Bryozoa. 

A-16—The test here was in all respects similar to CG-2 with the excep- 
tion of the absence of Ostrea and the presence of Algae. 

A-17—The findings on these blocks were similar to those at CG-2, the 
destruction while quite severe being less than at A-15. The end of the 
season of activity came abruptly about October 1. A test board of 1923 
model was substituted for the old one, March 1, 1928. Six series of blocks 
from this board have been examined, the last one removed August 30. 
None of them contained shipworms. Associated organisms were Balanus 
and Algae. 


SAVANNAH AND BRUNSWICK 315 


A-18—One specimen of Bankia gouldi was found in block 12, removed 
March 16, 1923. Succeeding blocks (14-25 inclusive) contained each from 
3 to 6 specimens attaining a length of 12 inches. Associated organisms 


were Balanus and Algae. 
A-19—Twenty-six blocks were examined, none of which contained ship- 
worms. A fairly heavy set of Balanus was observed on the majority of the 


blocks. 
A-20—No shipworms were found in any of the 22 blocks examined, and 
Balanus was considerably less numerous than at A-19. 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
BRUNSWICK HARBOR 
GEORGIA 


NAUTICAL MILES 


3 
YAROS 


5900 


“ 
S 
iS) 
© 
= 
> 
5 
m) 
K 
x 


A-21—With the exception of a few specimens of Balanus found on block 
3, and a trace of Algae on blocks 6 and 7, no life of any kind was observed 


on the nine blocks examined. 
CG-1—No life of any kind was observed on the seven blocks examined 


from this board. 

From the foregoing it would appear that conditions necessary for the 
existence of the Bankia gouldi have become quite unfavorable when the 
lower Dolphin (A-18) about 634 miles from Fort Scriven has been reached, 


316 HARBOR REPORTS 


and prohibitive between that point and Girls House (A-19) 2% miles 
farther upstream. 

Records of salinity and temperature observations made at Brunswick by 
the Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad and the Southern Railway 
Company are shown on Figs. 94 and 95. 


ABA-1—The destruction at this point was rapid and severe. In addi- 
tion to great quantities of Bankia gouldi, a few specimens of Teredo navalis 
and Teredo bartschi were observed. Limnoria was noted on some of the 
blocks, and Balanus was usually present. On account of the complete de- 
struction of the test specimen it was impossible to make an examination to 
determine the date of the ending of the season of activity. The new blocks 
of revised type, however, fixed the beginning of the 1923 season as oc- 
curring between May 1 and June 1. 


ACL-1 and la—Destruction by Bankia gouldi was similar in intensity to 
ABA-1l. A fairly heavy attack of Limnoria was also observed. A few 
specimens of Teredo bartschi but none of Teredo navalis were found. 
Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 


S-4—Bankia gouldi was first found in block 8, removed February 1, and 
ranged in number from 5 to 12 in each of the succeeding blocks 9-14 in- 
clusive. Blocks 15 to 19 inclusive contained an average of 30 specimens, 
and blocks 20, 21 and 23 each one specimen. Block 19 also contained sev- 
eral specimens of Teredo bartschi. Associated organisms were Balanus, 
Bryozoa and Algae. Limnoria attack was severe. 


Methods of Protection 

Impregnation with creosote is in general use. The oldest structure of 
record so protected is the wharf at Fort Scriven, built in 1908. The pine 
piles in this structure were treated to refusal, and were in good condition 
when inspected in the summer of 1922. 

The records of treatment and service of the piles in the Turtle River 
docks of the Southern Railway Company are unusually complete. Several 
analyses of the creosote used have been made and these with the service 
records will be found in Chapter VI, page 128. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—Reinforced concrete bulkheads and piers on precast rein- 
forced concrete piles were built for the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic 
Railroad terminals at Brunswick in 1907. Unfortunately no construction 
records are available. The 6 inch sheet piling and the piles supporting the 
piers show deterioration from low water line to the top. Below low water 
line good condition prevails. The 18-inch sheet piling shows no signs of 
failing. 


Conclusions 

Intense borer attack may be expected in the Savannah River as far up 
stream as Long Island Crossing from which point it decreases in intensity 
until it disappears at a point between Lower Dolphin and Girls House. 
An increase in salinity on account of a protracted period of low rainfall 
would probably extend the range of the borers somewhat above this point. 

The period of inactivity of shipworms extends from about December 1 to 
June 1 in the Savannah River. 

All structures in Brunswick Harbor are subject to heavy attack. 


317 


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HARBOR REPORTS 


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EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 319 


The beginning of the period of activity occurs during the month of May, 
but the close of the period was not determined. It probably does not differ 
much from that established for the Savannah River. 

All timber piles below Girls House in the Savannah River and all in 
Brunswick should have the best protection that can be devised. 


HASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 
General Description 


This report includes the Eastern Coast of Florida from Fernandina 
(Fig. 96) to Key West, and the St. Johns River from its mouth to Palatka 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
CUMBERLAND SOUND 
FLORIDA 


NAUTICAL MILES 
2 


3 
YAROS 


Fig. 96 


(Fig. 98). The general character of the coast between Fernandina and 
Miami is low and sandy, with frequent shoals extending from 3 to 8 miles 
off shore. From Miami to Key West the coast is formed by a chain of small 


320 HARBOR REPORTS 


islands known as the Florida Keys, outside of and nearly parallel to which 
are the Florida reefs. 

Cumberland Sound is the approach to Fernandina where the Seaboard 
Air Line has installed a test board at their phosphate dock on the Amelia 
River in about 28 feet of water. Tidal currents at the entrances to the 
Sound are of high velocity, reaching at times 5 knots per hour. 

Jacksonville (Fig. 97) is located on the St. Johns River 28 miles from 
its mouth, and Palatka is 54 miles farther upstream. The channel is being 
improved to a depth of 30 feet from Jacksonville to the sea. It is about 600 


4 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
ST.JOHNS RIVER 
FLORIDA 1923 


NAUTICAL MILES 


' 
YARDS 
1000 


Ere, 92 


feet wide across the bar and 500 feet wide to Mayport. From Mayport to 
Jacksonville the channel width varies from 300 to 600 feet. The mean rise 
and fall of tide ranges from 5.0 feet at the entrance to the river to 1.0 foot 
at Jacksonville. The salinity of the water at Jacksonville varies from 2 to 
14 parts per 1,000, and the temperature from 70 to 85 degrees Fahr. Above 
Jacksonville there is a dredged depth of 10% feet to Palatka (Fig. 98). 
Infrequent tests of the water at Palatka made by the Florida East Coast 
Railway have shown no salinity. 

Jupiter (Fig. 99), about 80 miles north of Miami, is important to this 


EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 321 


investigation as being the northernmost limit of two hitherto unidentified 
species of Bankia. 

Miami (Fig. 100), located on the west shore of Biscayne Bay, 10 miles 
below its head and 8 miles above Cape Florida, has wharves with depths 
alongside ranging from 4 to 15 feet. 

Channel Five (Fig. 101) passes between Lower Matecumbe Key and Long 
Key about 70 miles east of the City of Key West and 85 miles from Miami. 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARD 
PALATKA , ST.JOHNS RIVER 
FLORIDA 1923 


ONE MILE PT. 


ae 


4 - 
PALATKA jy yeep. FEC*3 —— 
id 


Sey 


ROLLESTOWN 


Fic. 98. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Shipworms and crustacean borers are known to exist 
along the entire coast line. Limnoria has been reported as far up the St. 
Johns River as Jacksonville and shipworms have done great damage at that 
point though they do not attack every year. In 1914 a part of one of the 
wharves of the Atlantic Coast Line at Jacksonville failed on account of 
shipworm attack. © 


B22 HARBOR REPORTS 


Officers of the Corps of Engineers estimate the life of unprotected timber 
at the mouth of the St. Johns River and at Miami at 4 years and 6 years at - 
Jacksonville. Sphaeroma is present in considerable numbers at Jackson- 
ville and Palatka. This borer cut off and totally destroyed large piles in a 
structure belonging to the Florida East Coast Railway at the latter point in 
less than 17 years. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed as follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Fernandina—S. A. L. Phosphate 
DOG Se ecco a ee SAL-1....} Seaboard Air Line. ..] Sept. 14, 1922 0.8 real. 
Jacksonville—A. C. L. Warehouse 
Dock Export Terminals....... AGCL-2:...| Atlantic Coast Line....| Aug: 255192201955. ee 
Jacksonville—F. E. C. St. Johns 
REVer_ BeiGee i,t ce eee FEC-2....| Florida East Coast 
RAUWaly os os skis eee July 1, 1922 0.2 6.0 
Palatka—F. E. C. Bridge....... FEC-3....| Florida Taat Coast 
Ral Wwavete oon <a July 1, 1922 0 6.5 
Pablo Creek (Fig, 102)......... FEC-1....| Florida Rast Coast 
Railway .ocs cae July 1, 1922 0 2.0 
Jupiter hear. oe hee ee ee FEC-4....| Florida ast Coast 
Railway. 220 July 1, 1922 10) 7.0 
Mita rit Seen eet eben tender nie ee FEC-5....} Florida Rast Coast 
Rallwaveuwann cc eee July 1, 1922 0 7.0 
Channel Pivererncreces oe ee FEC-6....] Florida East Coast ee iso 


Railways ics -aieiee July 1, 1922 


The inspection of test blocks gave the following results: 


SA-1—The first block, removed after 16 days’ immersion, showed 6 ship- 
worm larve, while the third block one month later showed about 20 speci- 
mens of Bankia gouldi up to 2 inches in length and one of Teredo bartschi 
1 inch long. The fourth block, removed November 15, contained several 
specimens of Teredo bartschi with larve ready to be ejected, while the 
number of Bankia gouldi in the December 4 block was over 200. The ninth 
block, removed February 1, 1923, was completely filled with Bankia gouldi 
varying in length from a few millimeters to 6 inches; some individuals of 
Teredo navalis were also found. This board was replaced about March 1 
by a 1923 model board. The first block, removed April 6, showed one 
Bankia gouldi 1 mm. long. Teredo bartschi 1 to 3 mm. long appeared on 
the blocks removed June 4. The specimens of Bankia gouldi in the July 
block, immersed 4 months, were 4 inches long and those of Teredo bartschi 
about 21% inches, while the block with one month’s immersion contained 
over 200 shipworms about evenly divided between the two species, the 
longest measuring 214 inches. The attack on the July block was about the 
same and in the 5 months block Teredo navalis about 34% inches long was 
measured. The shingle block immersed between March 1 and October 15 
was filled with shipworms, principally Bankia gouldi, one of which had a 
length of 13 inches. 

The Limnoria attack was extremely heavy. The Beane aed organisms ~ 
were Balanus, Bryozoa and some Algae. 

ACL-2 and FEC-2—No borers were found in blocks from either of these 
boards. Associated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus and Green Algae. 

FEC-3—No life of any kind except a little vegetation appeared on any 


EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA B20 


of the blocks but a pile section received from another structure had been 
cut off by and was filled with Sphaeroma. 


FEC-1—No borers excepting two specimens of Sphaeroma were found 
but the growth of Balanus, Bryozoa and Mytilus was very heavy indicating 
the possibility of shipworm attack. 


FEC-4—The first shipworm, Bankia sp. I, appeared in the seventh block, 


NAUTICAL MILES 


5 10 1s 20 2s 30 


FT PERCE 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
JUPITER INLET 

FLORIDA 1923 


FEC*4 


‘ PALMBEACH 
| 


Fic. 99 


removed October 15. The next block also contained one specimen. No 
more were found until the block removed February 28, 1923, in which there 
were 38 animals from 5 mm. to 10 mm. long. The board was lost and re- 
placed April 1. No shipworms were found until block 4, removed May 31, 
which contained 6 specimens of Bankia sp. I from 2 mm. to 8 mm. Block 
5 contained over 100 specimens, some of them 4 inches long. A specimen 


324 HARBOR REPORTS 


FLORIDA 


TEST BOARDS 
NAUTICAL MILES 
YARDS 
2,000 


MIAMI HARBOR 


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A 
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EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 


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326 HARBOR REPORTS 


of Bankia sp. C was also found. Later blocks were completely honey- 
combed. One specimen of Martesia and a few of Sphaeroma were also 
found. The associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Ostrea and Algae. 


FEC-5—Very little life was found on this board, only one shipworm, 
Bankia sp. I, and a few specimens of Balanus. 


FEC-6—The first shipworms and Limnoria appeared on the second block, 
removed August 1. The blocks until October 15 continued to show a few 
larval shipworms which did not seem to prosper but the seventh block, re- 
moved on this date, contained a specimen of Teredo thompsoni %% inch long 
and one of Teredo sp. D 2 inches long. Block 14, removed January 31, 
1923, contained Teredo clappit and Teredo (Lyrodus) bipartita of small 
size and few in number and the next block in addition to other specimens 
contained a specimen of Teredo bipartita only ®4 inch long but containing 
embryos. The next block contained in addition to the other species several 
specimens of Teredo somersi, only 7 mm. long, but containing embryos. 
The board was replaced by a 1923 model board on March 1 but while em- 
bryos were found on most blocks little growth occurred until July 18 when 
the block contained about 100 specimens of Teredo clappi, some of them 2 
inches long. The growth and number of animals continued through the 
summer, but up to September 18 no species other than Teredo clappi had 
appeared in the new board. 

The Limnoria attack was very heavy at times reaching a depth of 14 inch 
and killing the shipworms. Other organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

Salinity and temperature observations of the water of St. Johns River at. 
Jacksonville were made by the Atlantic Coast Line Railway. These records 
are shown on Fig. 103. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—This method of protection is perhaps the most 
generally used in this territory, but cannot be said in the light of past 
experience to be entirely satisfactory. According to the Army, the life of 
piles treated with approximately 22 pounds of creosote per cubic foot has 
averaged about 12 years. The Lighthouse Service has recently adopted this 
method of protection, and specifies impregnation to refusal (22 to 24 
pounds). However, a slight attack was found within 14 months on piles so 
treated and driven in Miami harbor March 7, 1921. 


Armor—Terra cotta pipe placed around the piles extending from below 
the mud line to above highwater, the annular space being filled with sand 
or concrete, has been employed as a protection. This practice, in vogue 
some twenty years ago, did not prove generally satisfactory on account of 
the large amount of breakage, and is no longer employed. 

The Lighthouse Service has two structures in this territory in which the 
piles are armored with standard cast iron bell and spigot pipe. These 
structures are the Biscayne Channel Light No. 34, and the Mosquito Bank 
Light at Hawk Channel, and are square pyramidal wooden structures, each 
on four untreated pine piles. The former was built in 1903, and the latter 
in 1901. They are reported to have been in good condition in 1922, except 
for the decay of the tops of the piles above the casings. 


Substitutes for Timber 
Wrought Iron piles have been used in structures on Florida reefs since 


EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA a2 


1852. A report by the Superintendent of Lighthouses, 7th District, follows: 


AN regard to wrought iron structures, these are pyramidal skeleton struc- 
tures on piles; columns and struts are round solid wrought iron, all well 
braced with round wrought iron tension rods. Columns, piles and struts are 
connected by cast iron sockets with lugs, and wrought iron pins. Floor 
plates, parapet plates, roof, etc., are of cast iron.” 

“At the Florida Reef Light Stations these large structures are scaled 

and painted by the keepers, who also keep watch at night, besides keeping 
station clean, cooking, etc. Most of the time there are only two keepers at 
these stations. After they have got the station in good condition it is an easy 
matter for one man to keep it so.” 
_ “If wrought iron structures are given the proper attention and are 
painted periodically with suitable paint before paint has time to wear off, 
Say once every 2 or 3 years, structure will require only painting, with small 
amount of scaling in spots. But if allowed to deteriorate the cost of main- 
tenance increases tenfold.” 

“The wrought iron piles and tension rods that are in the water and 
where the sea washes daily are never scaled or painted and the tension 
rods in the water have to be renewed in about 15 to 20 years, usually 
because they wear away at the point of intersection. The wrought iron 
piles appear to be protected by the rust film or scale, as they show very 
fae deterioration after years of service—69 years in one instance in this 

istrict.” 


Concrete—Several old concrete structures on the Florida Coast have 
been inspected and reported on by the U. S. District Engineer at Jackson- 
ville as follows: 


“In accordance with instructions contained in letter from the Office of the 
Division Engineer on the above subject, dated July 26, 1923, report is sub- 
mitted on cement constructions at St. Augustine, Fort Marion and Fort 
Taylor, and in addition, on similar constructions on the St. Johns River 
jetties. . 

“Except for the concrete capping of the groins constructed at St. Augus- 
tine in the years 1889 and 1890, it has not been possible to discover any 
records of the materials used in the various works or complete descriptions 
of the methods of construction. Particular attention has been given, there- 
fore, to the concrete used in the groin capping, and the report thereon is 
as complete as possible.” 


St. AUGUSTINE.—“Altogether, nine groins were constructed for the pro- 
tection of north beach and the north point of Anastasia Island at the 
entrance to St. Augustine Harbor. The groins located on north point are 
at present, and have been for a number of years, practically buried in sand 
to some depth so that a thorough inspection of their present condition is 
not feasible. Furthermore, since these groins have been protected from the 
sea action for a number of years, it is thought that an inspection of their 
present condition would not be as enlightening as an inspection of the 
Anastasia Island groins, which have been exposed to the elements through- 
out their existence.” 

“Work on groin No. 1, Anastasia Island, began October 1, 1889, and ended 
June 30, 1890. This groin was constructed 341 feet long, the materials used 
being brush fascines, riprap stone and oyster shells, with concrete capping. 
The latter consisted of concrete blocks 24 to 30 inches thick, 5 feet long and 
6 feet wide at the base, with a 2 foot crest and side slopes one on two. In 
order to prevent the travel of the riprap along the groin, each third capping 
block was made 4 feet long and 8 feet wide at the base. Nine-tenths of the 
work on this groin was done with the Anchor Brand of Portland cement, 
mixed 1 part cement, 4 parts beach sand, and 6% parts coquina gravel; 
and the F. O. Norton Brand of Rosendale cement, mixed 1 part beach sand, 
and 2% parts of coquina gravel. A small amount of work was done with 
Sphinx and Dyckerhoff Brands of Portland cement, mixed 1, 4, 6144; Fisher’s 
U.S.G. Rosendale, mixed 1, 2, 4; and Hydraulic Lime of Teil, mixed 1, 2, 4. 
The records do not indicate in what portions of the groins the various 


328 


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HARBOR REPORTS 


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HARBOR REPORTS 


brands were used. The present condition of the jetty is practically the same 
throughout its entire length, so that it may be assumed that the various 
types of cement used gave practically the same quality of concrete. The 
sand used was of very poor quality, being round and extremely fine. All 
concrete was mixed by hand, the material for each batch being turned by 
shovels three times when dry and four times after the addition of water. 
It was cast in place in watertight forms, being carried to the desired 
location in wheelbarrows, and thoroughly tamped in place. The Portland 
concrete weighed 143.2 pounds per cubic foot when newly made, and 137 
pounds when one month old. The Rosendale concrete weighed 133.3 and 
131 pounds at like ages. At the present time all the concrete work on this 
groin is in very good condition, having in general suffered very little 
deterioration. Several blocks lying between low and high water show con- 
siderable corrosion on the upper surface. All exterior surfaces are, how- 
ever, extremely hard and can be broken only with great difficulty. The sides 
of the blocks have been remarkably well preserved, and in many instances 
show very clearly the impression of the forms used in the construction. 
When small pieces of the blocks are chipped off, the interior or non-exposed 
surface may be readily disintegrated by the hands. This would appear to 
indicate that insufficient water to provide complete chemical action was 
used in the original construction, and that the outer surfaces, where a 
greater proportion of water appeared, were of a much more substantial 
construction.” 

“Groin No. 4, Anastasia Island, was constructed in 1890 and 1891. The 
concrete capping was composed of rectangular blocks 4 feet wide by 2.8 
feet thick. Saylor’s Brand of American Portland cement was used, the pro- 
portions finally adopted for the inner end of the capping being 1 part 
cement, 3 parts beach sand, and 5 parts coquina gravel. On the outer end 
of the groin the mixture was enriched to 1, 2, 4. The methods of construc- 
tion were the same as described above for eroin No. 1. This concrete has 
suffered considerable deterioration, particularly by flaking off in longitu- 
dinal cakes several feet in width and length, and about 6 to 7 inches in 
depth. The present appearance would indicate that the concrete had been 
placed in courses and that insufficient bond between successive layers had 
been secured. This condition probably resulted from the method of placing, 
which consisted of thoroughly tamping to a level surface after each deposit 
of several wheelbarrow loads of the mixture. This concrete can be readily 
broken up in large pieces, but the individual specimens thus secured show 
fairly good internal bond; and in fact cannot be disintegrated as rapidly 
as the concrete in groin No. 1.” 

“Two other groins were built on Anastasia Island in later years, but 
complete information as to methods and materials is not obtainable from 
the records. Their general condition is practically identical with that of 
groin No. 1.” 


Fort MARION—“‘Repairs to the Stairway arch, and in other parts of 
Fort Marion, were made in 1886 and 1887, all of the work being above high 
water level and not exposed to the direct action of sea water. Although 
records do not indicate the methods and materials used in this work, em- 
ployes of this district recall that the same materials were used as for groin 
No. 1 described above; probably European Portland and Rosendale cements 
with fine bank sand and coquina gravel. All of this work is in excellent 
condition at the present time, showing but little deterioration.” 


Fort TAYLOR—“‘With reference to the concrete work in the sea wall at 
Fort Taylor constructed with the F. O. Norton Brand of Rosendale cement 
about 1856, the following is quoted from the report of Geo. E. Brown, 
Superintendent: 

‘A portion of this wall was demolished by the hurricane of 1910. The 
greater portion is still standing, however. Some erosion has occurred in 
the submerged portions of the wall, but the statement as to the apparent 
strength and durability of the face of the wall is still true. Concrete on top 
of the wall can readily be dug out with a knife; this is also true, however, 
of the soft limestone aggregate imbedded in the mortar ; it is true also of 
concrete filling between the brick facings of the walls in old Fort Taylor 
proper, though the latter is slightly harder than that in the sea wall. Both 


KEY WEST ook 


the concrete in the wall and fort are made up of the same proportion of 
cement and calcareous sand. 

- ‘The wall discussed is subjected to constant wave action, very heavy 
breakers in stormy weather. The depth of the wall varies from 8 feet to 
about 2 feet. The mixture was one part Rosendale cement, 7 parts broken 
limestone. In the breaking of this stone, sufficient pulverization of the ma- 
terial occurs to fill the voids of the aggregate. Displacement stone, varying 
in size, were also imbedded in the mixture; the largest of these displacement 
stones would weigh 8 to 10 pounds.’ ” 


ST. JOHNS RIVER—“Some concrete blocks were used as capping for the 
north jetty at the entrance to the St. Johns River in 1888, and several blocks 
were placed at the inner end of the south jetty between 1888 and 1890. No 
record can be found giving the materials and methods of construction used. 
Inasmuch as the present appearance of these blocks is very similar to that of 
groin No. 1, Anastasia Island, which was constructed at the same time, it 
is very probable that the same materials were used. W. W. Fineren, Assis- 
tant Engineer, reports the present condition of these blocks as follows: 

‘These blocks are above low water and are not at all times submerged. 
There are no blocks on the jetties entirely submerged at all times. About 
60 per cent of the blocks in question are submerged during the rising 
tide for about 20 per cent of the time, making them in water one-fifth 
of the time and in air four-fifths of the time; the other 40 per cent of 
the blocks are above high tide and are exposed to salt air only. 

‘Both the blocks partly submerged and the blocks entirely in air were 
examined carefully and no deterioration was observed. From the appear- 
ance of the blocks no chemical change has taken place and the blocks seem 
to be as good as when they were deposited over thirty years ago.’ ” 


Conclusions 

The best creosote impregnation does not seem to be efficient for more 
than 10 or 12 years, hardly a sufficient length of time to justify its use on 
important structures with permanent decks located in salt water. 

Cast iron casings have good records, but piles used in cast iron casings 
should be protected against decay above high water. 

The wrought iron structures of the Lighthouse Service are in good con- 
dition after nearly 70 years, which indicates that the use of this material 
is certainly worthy of consideration. 

The concrete structures reported were built with cements not now on the 
market but generally their record is good. 

The beginning of the period of borer inactivity at Fernandina is not 
clear but it appears to have ended in May; at Jupiter Inlet the close of the 
period of inactivity was at about the same time, while at Channel Five it 
appears from the record to have been slightly later. 

The different species very evidently have different periods of inactivity 
but all of them appear to be inactive in the early spring. 


KEY WEST, FLORIDA 

Description of Harbor 

Key West, (Fig. 104), lies northward of the Florida Reefs and_ is ac- 
cessible to vessels of 2614 feet draft by several channels through the reefs 
and coral banks surrounding the harbor. The maximum tidal range 
recorded is 9.63 feet and the mean rise and fall of tide is 1.25 feet with an 
estimated current velocity on flood of 214 knots and 3 to 31% knots on ebb. 
Both the tidal range and currents are greatly affected by the wind. The pre- 
vailing winds are easterly except in the winter when they are northerly. 
During the West India hurricanes, which generally occur in September and 
October, wind velocities of 110 miles per hour have been recorded. 


332 HARBOR REPORTS 


The channel at the Naval Station is 26 feet in depth and 800 feet wide. 
The depth at the wharves in the harbor varies from 10 to 26 feet. 

The water temperatures in 1921 reached a minimum of 60° Fahr. in 
January and February and additional readings below 70° Fahr. were ob- 
tained in March, April, May, November and December. The average was 
76.1° Fahr. and the maximum 88° Fahr. in June and August. Temperature 
and salinity from November 1, 1922, to September 1, 1923, are shown on 
Rigs LOS, 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Shipworms are very active and were thought to attack 
with uniform intensity throughout the year. Both the Navy and Light- 
house Service report that the greatest damage is caused by Limnoria which 
will destroy an unprotected pile in from one to two years. They have also 
attacked creosoted timber. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed as shown 
below: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line }] M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
South end of F. E. C. Bridge....}] FEC-7....| Florida East Coast 
BIlWaAVanh oat omncre July 1, 1922 9.5 6.0 
Quay Ww allie, cab cere eran er EY = 10) LesN Vy nas ee eee Sept. 1, 1922 10.0 ae 
0.0 10.5 


Qusye W allie a ee ee, oo te ee YD=70OPAs | UNavvigers et eee Sept. 1, 1922 


*Board suspended in a horizontal position. 


The results of the inspections were as follows: 


FEC-1—Teredo first appeared in block 2, removed August 1, increased in 
number reaching 100 in block 7, removed October 15, then decreased to 
from 7 to 12 in blocks 8, 9, 10 and finally increased again to from 50 to 100 
specimens in the remaining blocks 11 to 16 inclusive. These proved to be 
of two new species, Teredo clappi and Teredo sp. D. About 90 per cent of 
the total number were Teredo clappi. A careful examination was made of 
the board together with the remaining original (Nos. 17-24) and replace- 
ment blocks (Nos. 1A-16A.) which was removed from the water March 6, 
1923. The results of this examination indicate that the shipworm attack 
began to be less severe on September 15 and gradually decreased until De- 
cember 15 when it entirely ceased. It is very interesting to note the rapid 
decrease in Teredo clappi and increase in Teredo sp. D. Limnoria lig- 
norum, the only organism other than shipworms in these blocks, also 
showed less activity from September 15 on, but persisted until February 
15, 1923, 5 specimens appearing on this block. On the date of the removal 
of the old, a new board of 1923 model was substituted. The first appearance 
of shipworms on the new blocks occurred on the second series, removed 
May 1. The center block of this series which had been in the water one 
month contained about 50 shipworm embryos, all belonging to Teredo sp. D. 
Teredo clappi appeared one month later. The last blocks, which were re- 
moved October 8, showed the tubes of the shipworm protruding through 
the wood, a condition due to the severe action of Limnoria. Bryozoa was 
the only associated organism and was found on a few blocks only. 


KEY WEST poe 


YD-701 and 701-A—These boards were located very near to FEC-7 and 
the results of the test were similar to and confirmatory of those found at 
that point. Three other species of Teredo were found in small numbers, 
viz.: Teredo bipartita, Teredo thompsoni and Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. Q, 
the last named being new. 

It will be seen from the foregoing that a period of immunity from ship- 
worm attack existed for about four months, from December 15 to April 15, 
and that although Limnoria action was considerably diminished during the 
same period, it did not altogether cease. 


AND 7O1-A 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
KEY WEST 
FLORIDA 


NAUTICAL MILES 


2 4 


3 
YARDS 
5,000 


Fie. 104 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—The U. S. Government Departments have all 
used creosoted piles with a treatment ranging from 12 to 24 pounds per 
cubic foot. Yellow pine sheet piles containing 16 to 20 pounds in Naval 
structures are reported to show the first damage in from 7 to 8 years and 
to be destroyed in about 12 years. Some small piers were built in 1920-22 
with piles containing only 12 pounds of creosote but although surface in- 


334 HARBOR REPORTS 


spection has not yet shown any damage this treatment is considered too 
light by the Bureau of Yards and Docks. 

The Corps of Engineers, U. S.A., consider that the average life of piles, 
containing 22 pounds of creosote per cubic foot, is about 12 years and the 
Lighthouse Service since 1920 have been specifying 22 pounds of grade B 
creosote. 


Armor—Terra cotta pipe armor filled with sand has been used with 
poor results on account of breakage, but cast iron pipe is reported to be 
efficient by the Lighthouse Service when it is set deep enough in the bottom 
so that the unprotected pile will not be exposed by scour. Some trouble was 
experienced on account of the decay of the piles above water level. 

Concrete armor has been tried with varying success by the three bureaus, 
but the Lighthouse Service reports that the life of the structure was short- 
ened by dry rot as in the case of cast iron pipe. 


Substitutes for Timber 

Wrought Iron and Steel—Pier A of the Navy Department was built in 
1879 on hollow wrought iron piles with a shell thickness of 34 inch. It 
was removed in 1911 to meet the requirement of heavier loading and the 
piles were found to be unaltered below the mudline, in good condition up to 
mean low water, and badly pitted, though not destroyed, above mean low 
water. Solid 6-inch steel piles driven in 1898-1900 are also reported by 
the Bureau of Yards and Docks to be in good condition. 


Concrete—Concrete structures are reported as follows: 


Cement Imbedment Condition 
Object Mixture} Brand Aggregate of Steel Consistency 1922 
Navy Dept. Quay Wall 
1911-12 
PeeP Hes? eaters 1:2:3 | Lehigh...| 144” gravel and 
silica sand from 
HR Bees he fae, a 144”-214”| Flow, but not run}Generally poor 
Die DOINGS couches 1:2:3 | Lehigh...| 1144” gravel and 
silica sand from 
Si Sead fees 14”-114”| Generally wet. ..|Generally poor 
Se OLAD. ene eee 1.2.4 | Lehigh...] 144” gravel and 
silica sand from 
Tas ieee ce cee %4”"-1 Generally wet. ..|/Generally poor 


Pier ‘‘A’’—1912 
4. Precast Cylinders.| 1:114:3] Atlas....}| Silica sand and 


34" gravel..... 1144” Flow, but not run] Generally fair. 
5. Beams and Slabs..| 1:214:5| Atlas....| 1144” gravel..... 1%” Flow, but not run| Generally fair. 
Pier ‘““B’’—1912 
6.8 Deck 05 sae 13224 Vulcanite| 34” gravel and 
silica sand..... 1144” Flow, but not run} Good. 
7. Coal Shed ‘‘A’”’ Ex- 
TONSLOD. 2.5. f doasdtesef ccasene cagebotalf ed jasere'ene a! cc cacese ot a eemele peep eae ene ene ae Flow, but not run} Good. 
8. Under water...... 1:144:3] Atlas....] Silica sand and 
114” gravel... 22) 13g eae eo ee 
PAOLHersee eee P:2)6251 Atlases \cceae ete cee |B ns Marae eee Po oo 2 hs 
9. Coal Shed ‘B” 
TSheet Piles....... 14:3 | Vulcanite] Gravelandsand..| 1144” Flow, but not run} Good. 
Lighthouse Service 
10. Reinforced Con- ee 
crete: Piles —-1915i:! | 20a. ete. ce BR eee ee ee 2% of sec- 
GON | os a] a chsuete ee eae eee Cracks from 
4’ below M. 
L.W. to 2’ 
above H.W. 


*This deck is made of arches sprung between ‘‘I’’ beams, 2’4” on center and is not a typical reinforced job. 
+The tops of these piles are below water. : 
**Ratio of reinforcement section to total section. 


BYst0) 


KEY WEST 


weeni530 
St oz siot gs 


usGNIZAON 
at oz st on 


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AGM ‘AUYVH A 


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WIGNAAON 


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: t — 
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Gzoz si o1 gs sz oz st Ol § Szoz si Ol & St oz si OF &Z OZ@SI Ob 
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336 HARBOR REPORTS 


All of these structures are said to have been built with great care and in 
conformity with the best practice at the time of their construction. The 
piles were kept moist 20 days and were seasoned 60 days before driving. 
Almost every pile is cracked above low water over each reinforcing rod. 
In 1914, 40 piles were cast, using a broken brick aggregate and 14 of them 
were driven. With the exception of one, which was defective, all were re- 
ported in good condition. They have never been decked and consequently 
are well ventilated, but it is not improbable that the replacement of a part 
of the inert aggregate by silica in its active form from the broken brick, 
may have something to do with their condition. 


Tests 

One pile sheathed with copper .021 inch thick and one with monel metal 
.021 inch thick were driven May 23, 1923, at the edge of the Key West 
Depot Wharf of the Lighthouse Service just inside the fender line. The 
sheathing materials were furnished by the manufacturers and the test is 
in charge of the Superintendent of Lighthouses of the District. 


Conclusions 


No unprotected timber structures which are required to stand in this 
harbor over one year should be constructed. 

A period of immunity from the attack of molluscan borers of from three 
to four months between December and April may be expected, but no such 
period will be free from Limnoria attack. 

Thoroughy creosoted piles may be expected to have an average life not 
exceeding 12 years. 

The record of wrought and cast iron is good and long life may be ex- 
pected from properly designed and built structures. 

Most of the concrete structures show deterioration, but their present age 
- is not sufficient to permit their useful life to be predicted. 


GULF OF MEXICO—MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST* 
General Description 

The coast line of this region is generally low and sandy. From Key West 
to Apalachee Bay the bottom is largely of coral formation. From Missis- 
sippi Sound west the bottom is sand and silt with several shoals lying well 
off shore, which change to some extent with severe storms. . 

Tampa Bay (Fig. 111) is the approach to Hillsboro and Old Tampa 
Bays. It is about 20 miles long and 6 to 7 miles wide. For a distance of 
15 miles above the entrance it has a least depth of 22 feet along its axis, 
between broad shoals that extend from the shores on both sides. A dredged ~ 
channel 200 feet wide and 25 feet deep leads to Port Tampa. 

Hillsboro Bay, the northeastern arm of Tampa Bay, at the head of which 
is situated the city of Tampa, is 8 miles long and 4 miles wide, and has a 
dredged channel 200 feet wide and 24 feet deep leading through it from 
the deeper water of Tampa Bay to a turning basin at the mouth of the 
Hillsboro River. The Hillsboro River, which flows through the middle of 
the City of Tampa, has a dredged channel 200 feet wide and 12 feet deep 
from the turning basin to the first drawbridge. 

Old Tampa Bay, the northwestern arm of Tampa Bay, is about 12 miles 
long and 6 miles wide, the narrowest part being at its junction with Tampa 


*Mobile and Key West Harbors not included. 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 337 


Bay, where the width is only 244 miles. It is generally shallow with depths 
of 5 to 15 feet, except at its southern end, where a deep channel runs along 
the eastern side about °4 mile off shore. On this stretch of the eastern 
shore is located Port Tampa, where there are depths of 18 to 24 feet along- 
side the docks. 


St. Petersburg is situated on the west shore of Tampa Bay. At the 
Municipal Pier, where the test board is located, there is a depth of 17 feet. 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
CEDAR KEYS 
FLORIDA 


AVES 
re 

Wee) 
QNG Sa 


are Wve 
aes = 


SS 
2 


<NN 
fag Af Te 


1, 
"% 
By 


9) ) HSS, 
Ae 
| ab Aor 
| }~ CEDAR KEYS aR 
(3G) DEPOT an SA-3 @] 


Fic. 106 


Fort Dade is located on Egmont Key at the entrance to Tampa Bay. 

The mean rise and fall of tides is 1.4 feet at Egmont Key, and 2.2 feet 
in Hillsboro and Old Tampa Bays. 

The town of Cedar Keys (Fig. 106) is located on Way Key, about midway 
between Tampa Bay and Cape San Blas. It is the terminus of a branch of 
the Seaboard Air Line. The mean rise and fall of the tides at this point 
is 3 feet, and there is a depth of 10 feet at the wharf. 


St. Andrews Bay (Fig. 107) is a narrow, irregularly shaped landlocked 


HARBOR REPORTS 


308 


LOT “SIA 


coool ooo'’s 
SSS er 

Vv. 
saux A 


2 
S3TIW TVWOILNVN 


XL ALId WAN 


Leo vatluo TA 
AVG SMGAAANV °.LS 
SaGuvod LSaAL 
40 NOILVDOT INIMOHS dvw 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 339 


harbor of moderate depth lying 27 miles northwestward of Cape San Blas. 
The mean rise and fall of the tides is 1.4 feet. 

Pensacola Bay (Fig. 108), one of the important harbors of the Gulf 
Coast, is about 12'% miles long and 244 miles wide. Two test boards are 
located in this bay, one at Fort Pickens on Santa Rosa Island, at the 
entrance to the Bay, the other at the Naval Air Station Wharf at Warring- 


NAUTICAL MILES 


3 
VARDS 


5,000 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
PENSACOLA BAY 
FLORIDA 


Fia. 108 


ton, a small town on the north shore about 2!4% miles above the entrance. 
The mean rise and fall of tides is 1.4 feet. 

Mississippi Sound extends 70 miles west of Mobiie Bay between a chain 
of long, narrow, low sand islands and the main land, to Lake Borgne, which 
in turn is connected with Lake Pontchartrain (Fig. 112) by The Rigolets, 
a deep passage 714 miles long and %4 mile wide. 


340 HARBOR REPORTS 


A dredged channel 17 feet deep leads from Horn Island Pass to Pasca- 
goula (Fig. 109) and thence up the Pascagoula River for a distance of 
about 9 miles. The tidal range at Range Beacon FR—A is 3.75 feet and at 
U. S. Boat Yard 3.9 feet. 

A dredged channel 200 feet wide and 1714 feet deep leads from Ship 
Island Harbor to Gulfport (Fig. 110). The tidal range at Ship Island 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 


MISSISSIPPI 
MISSISSIPPI 


Fig. 109 


Lighthouse is 3.5 feet; at Range Beacon FR—4, 3.5 feet, and at the Gulf & 
Ship Island Railroad pier, 2.0 feet. 

One test board was placed in the Gulf of Mexico in rear of the light- 
house at. the mouth of South Pass (Fig. 113) ; two test boards were placed 
in the Mississippi River, one at Quarantine and one at Fort Jackson. The 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 


5 
i 
faa) 
& © 
fa 
6 & 
enh 
O 
o45 
ae 
aa 
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bb 
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1923 


MISSISSIPPI 


i 
x 
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= 
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341 


110 


Fig. 


342 HARBOR REPORTS 


board in rear of the lighthouse is in a location where the water varies from 
full salt to brackish, whereas the other two boards are so located that the 
water is entirely fresh, except for short periods of time during the extreme 
low water period of the river. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Marine borers have always been troublesome in this 
territory, except in the Mississippi River above Port Eads, where the water 
is practically fresh for the greater part of the year. Untreated timber 
appears to have had a life of from one to two years in the coastal region 
between the mouth of the Mississippi River and St. Andrews Bay. In 
Tampa Bay four years is the maximum service period, but the average is 
little more than one year. 


Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as follows: 


Cd 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line} M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Hillsboro Bay—S. A. L. Phos- 

phate Wharf, Seddon Island...| SA-2..... Seaboard Air Line. ..| Oct. 15, 1922 14.0 fOh 
Hillsboro Bay—Seddon Island...} A-10..... Army 47 So. oe eee Sept. 1, 1922 6.0 8.0 
Port Tampa Slip—Old Tampa 

Rayer sso sitre Gi ee ae AV 2 eee ATINY 4 2. he ae Sept. 1, 1922 7.0 8.0 
Stibeterspurge.. oh a slanuste ome A=11) ae. AMY... hea eee Sept. 1, 1922 4.0 1.5 
Forts Dadevsue+ xo ao oe eee A=2Gi2 ae de AYTOy hee Sept. 1, 1922 0.5 ole 
Cedar Keys o57.4cen ie oe ee SA=3 ain Seaboard Air Line. ..| Oct. 15, 1922 1.5 6.0 
St. Andrews Bay — Fishhouse 

Wi RT iy cena 5 Aas copet eee A-46..... ATI sh Gace See Feb..1,.1923 vt> sec 
Pensacola Bay—Naval Air Sta- 

CignigW MATER wen ree eee ee NAS=1ea tal INSVY sree oe ee ee Nov, 16, 1922 | oo. coun eee 
Pensacola Bay—Fort Pickens. ..| A-34..... ATTA V. Gi. deren eee Nov. 1, 1922 1.0 6.5 
Pascagoula Harbor—Range Bea- 

con REA ISG oe anne ee A~23\> eae ATiiy.:: 2 bene ae Oct. 12, 1922 ted £5. 
Pascagoula Harbor—U. S. Boat 

OTC Hea oe cuca eee A222 oe oe ATM y 3 jMaeieee ee Oct. 11, 1922 0.8 10.0 
Gulfport Harbor—Ship Island 

TERT HOUSE! ye eee oe oa eee Aa245ey ye ATINVigs: aici Oct. 15, 1922 *1-0- e-eee 
Gulfport Harbor—Range Beacon 

LRad eR incom cn. ike otek eae A=251. oy ALINY 22, Ae torc terterere Oct. 15, 1922 1.0 16.6 
Gulfport Harbor—G. 8. I. South 

Wihart, tare o Seite. eee GSI-1....] Gulf & Ship Island Ry.} Sept. 22, 1922 1.0 GE 
Lake Pontchartrain — So. Ry. 

Bridge at South Point........ S82 sno ees Southern Ry... a.een Oct. 1, 1922 1.8 8.0 
Manchac Pass—I. C. Railroad 

IBrith@eics tec es peta cmen LG=U ean Illinois Central R. R.}| Oct. 15, 1922 6.0 9.0 
Gulf of Mexico—Port Eads..... A=36 5 «caso: ATMY Nee ee ee Oct. 15, 1922 0.5 6.0 
Mississippi River—Quarantine...| A-45..... ATILY St Ae ied ee eee Dee. 15, 1922 0.5 13.5 
Mississippi River—Fort Jackson .| A-44..... ATM Y 4 Gu eh eee Dee. 15, 1922 ORS 14.0 


*Board suspended in a horizontal position. 


Results of inspection of blocks are as follows: 


SA-2—tThe first four blocks were covered with small barnacles. Speci- 
mens of Bankia gouldi first appeared in block 5, removed January 15, 1923, 
together with barnacles and a few specimens of Mytilus. Block 138 removed 
May 1 was completely destroyed by Bankia gouldi with tubes up to 12 
inches in length. Some examples of Bankia sp: I were found. The old 
board was replaced by the revised type, August 1, 1923, and no shipworms 
appeared during the next two months. Associated organisms were Balanus 
and Mytilus. | 

A-10—The first specimens of Bankia gouldi appeared in block 4, removed 
November 4, 1922. First Bankia sp. I appeared in block 6, removed De- 
cember 2. Teredo bartschi appeared in subsequent blocks. The old board ~ 


Fig. 111 


NAUTICAL MILES 
es _ 


> 

p- 
> 
3 


3 
YARDS 
4000 Oo 5,000 


A-26 


FORT DADE 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
TAMPA BAY 

FLORIDA 1923 


- 


PRs SARE 2 mel ad gee tne MB ae atte. 2 


23. 


D 


iM JADITUAM 


“Ee 
‘ 


Fig. 112 


x 


SOUTH POINT 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
LAKES MAUREPAS AND PONTCHARTRAIN 
LOUISIANA 1923 


| M JADITUAM 


Oa 2 v ii ec a 
2anay 


*> 


AMA 


PAS 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 343 


was replaced March 3, 1923, by a new board of the 1923 model. Center 
block 2, submerged for one month, removed May 4, contained numerous 
specimens of Bankia, and center block 3, immersed for one month, removed 
June 4, showed practically complete destruction by these two species of 
Bankia, which on August 8 had reached a length of 7 to 8 inches. Asso- 
ciated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus and Ostrea. 


A-12—Shipworms appeared on first block, removed September 20, 1922, 
associated with Balanus and encrusting Bryozoa. Destruction proceeded 
rapidly. A new board was substituted February 20, 1928. Shipworms 
identified were Teredo bartschi, Bankia gouldi and Bankia sp. I. Limnoria 
damage was considerable. Teredo was confined to upper and Bankia to 


NAUTICAL MILES 


LP» Va 


\ Y 
ot 
/ x ~ 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI 
LOUISIANA. 1923 


Fig. 113 


lower blocks. The end of the season of activity was established as prior to 
December 1, 1922. The attack of Teredo bartschi commenced in April and 
the first specimens of Bankia were found in May; by July the specimens of 
Teredo had reached a length of 4 inches and those of Bankia 6 inches, while 
on September 5, Bankia had increased in length to 10 inches. Associated 
organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. Limnoria attack was fairly 
heavy. A section of a pile from Sneads Island, Manatee River, showed 
complete destruction by Bankia gouldi and Martesia striata after one year’s 
service (Fig. 114). Shipworms were not hitherto known to exist at this 
particular location. 


A-11—Destruction was less rapid than at A-12. In addition to organisms 
found at A-12, there were present Teredo navalis and a few specimens of 


344 HARBOR REPORTS 


Martesia. Limnoria damage was the same as at A-12. The end of the sea- 
son of activity was prior to December 15, 1922, but specimens of Bankia 
12 inches long were found in the block removed February 1, 1923. The 
first shipworms appeared on new board installed March 2, 1923, between 
May 3 and June 8, though it is probable that the attack commenced in April. 
The Limnoria attack was so heavy that many of the shipworms were killed. 
Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Anomia and Algae. 


A-26—Destruction by Bankia gouldi, Teredo navalis and Teredo bartschi 
was rapid. Some specimens of Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. Q were found. 
Great damage was done by Martesia and Limnoria. The end of the season 
of activity was between December 1 and 15. The first shipworms appeared 
on the new board, installed March 8, 1928, between July 5 and August 2, 
and the attack appeared to be much lighter in the summer of 1923 than in 
the autumn of 1922. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus 
and Algae. 


SA-8—Teredo bartschi was the only species of shipworm found, and the 
attack was of medium intensity. The 1922 season of activity ended be- 
tween November 1 and 15. The 1923 season began prior to May 22. Lim- 
noria damage was considerable, and a few specimens of Martesia were 
found. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (both Lepralia and 
Bugula), Ostrea, Anomia and Algae. 


A-46—Damage by Limnoria severe. One specimen of Bankia gouldi was 
found in block 5, removed May 1, 1923. The board was abandoned after 
removal of block 6. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa. 


NAS-1—The first specimen of Bankia gouldi appeared in block 7, re- 
moved March 1, 1923. Destruction proceeded rapidly. A few specimens of 
Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. Q and Bankia sp. I were also found. Limnoria 
action was severe. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. A 
section of a pile treated with 20 pounds creosote and driven in 1902 was 
completely destroyed by species of Bankia, principally Bankia gouldi, as- 
sisted by Martesia and Limnoria lignorum. 


A-34—Destruction by Bankia gouldi was rapid. The beginning of the 
1923 season of activity was about April 1. Other shipworms found were 
Bankia sp. C and Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. Q. Limnoria action was of 
medium intensity. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Anomia. 


A-23—Bankia gouldi appeared on block 1, removed November 1, 1922, 
and 10 to 20 specimens were found in each of the succeeding blocks, in- 
cluding block 11. Block 7, removed February 1, contained a specimen of 
Bankia gouldi 7 inches long and block 9, one month later, one 10 inches: long. 
Block 12, removed April 16, was completely filled with Bankia gouldi. Later 


blocks were filled with Bankia and a few specimens of Martesia. Associated 


organisms were Balanus, encrusting Bryozoa and Algae. 


A-22—Bankia gouldi was found in block 5, removed January 1, 1923. — 
One to two specimens were found in succeeding blocks up to No. 12, which — 


contained about 100. One specimen of Teredo bartschi also appeared. 
Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 


A-24—In blocks 2 to 13, 2 to 10 small specimens of Bankia gouldi and 


Bankia sp. C were found. Block 14, removed May 16, 1923, contained about 
50 specimens and by the end of June the blocks were completely filled with 
Bankia gouldi, and a few specimens of Bankia sp. C. Limnoria was present 


>. ~~ ml 


345 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 


AVG VdWV J, 


. 


YAAIY GPALVNVIN AHL 40 HLAOW 


‘DIsaIUD IT UNV DIYUDG AA GAMOVLLY 
GHL LV Q0IAuag SAVE GNO HIIM AIIg ANIQ AHLOALOUMN JO NOILOAS—PIT ‘OT 


346 HARBOR REPORTS 


in considerable numbers. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, 
Ostrea and Algae. 

A-25—Bankia gouldt.—One to 20 specimens were found in Blocks 3, re- 
moved December 1, 1922, to 21, removed September 2, 1923, some of them 
nearly 12 inches long. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and 
Algae. 

GSI-1—Block 1, removed October 1, 1922, contained 10 specimens of 
Bankia gouldi. Block 2 and succeeding blocks were completely filled with 
this species, accompanied by a few specimens of Teredo bartschi. A new 
board was substituted April 10, 1928, and the first appearance of Bankia 
gouldi was on center block 2, between May 10 and June 10; center block 3, 
removed July 10, contained 100 small specimens, and total destruction oc- 
curred in three to four months. The growth was about 11% inches the first 
month. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Ostrea. 

S-8—A few specimens of Balanus improvisino Darwin, encrusting Byro- 
zoa and Algae were found, and while Sphaeroma had attacked piles in the 
trestle, none appeared on the blocks. 

IC-1—A few Sphaeroma borings were found, also some specimens of 
Balanus and Algae. 

A-86—Bankia gouldi, Teredo bartschi and a species of Sphaeroma were 
found, and the destruction was rapid. The season of activity ended between 
December 1 and 15, 1922, and the first appearance of Bankia gouldi in 1923 
was between May 23 and June 19; by July 17 specimens had reached a length 
of over 6 inches. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Lepralia) 
and Algae. 

A-45—No life of any kind. 

A-44—No life of any kind. 

Salinity and temperature observations were earmae on by the army at 
Fort Pickens, Port Eads and Gulfport, and by the Southern Railway at Lake 
Pontchartrain. These are shown on Figs. 115-119 inclusive. 

The Seaboard Air Line Engineering Department has under observation 
at Tampa, Seddon Island, a nail-studded test piece 4 inches by 4 inches by 
5 feet. The nails used are ordinary roofing nails having 34-inch heads. 
They were spaced 1% inch apart and in rows % inch center to center. The 
test piece was placed in the water June 10, 1923. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—This method of protection has been in general 
use in this territory from its earliest development. By this means the life 
of timber is extended to from 8 to 15 years when the process is carefully 
performed and the material well selected. Unless treated to refusal. how- 
ever, timber will have a much shorter life. Piles treated with 20 pounds per 
cubic foot and driven at the Navy Yard at Pensacola were found to be com- 
pletely destroyed in 1922. Piles in various other wharves at Pensacola 
showed a service life of from 5 to 11 years, the treatment ranging from 20 
to 24 pounds. At the L. & N. wharves a life of 20 years was obtained from 
piles averaging 22 pounds absorption. Experiments with creosote fractions 
were carried on by the Forest Products Laboratory, Department of Agri- 
culture, at Pensacola and Gulfport, and will be found reported on page 142. 


Pile Coatings—Experiments with Reed’s Wood Preservative, Barol, Cop- 
pered Carbolineum and Kennon’s Marine Preservative, applied to pontoons, 


347 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 


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348 HARBOR REPORTS 


were made by the Army in Hillsboro Bay and at the mouth of Manatee 
River, in the summer months of 1915, and from March to December, 1917. 
The pontoons on which the paints were applied were stored in fresh water 
during the period September 1, 1915, to March 1, 1917. Of the three paints 
tested, the Barol appeared to have the most lasting qualities. None of them 
stopped the Teredo attack, but it was thought that results with the Reed’s 
Wood Preservative were such that with successive coatings at 6 to 8 months 
intervals an economical protection would be secured. 


Armors—Vitrified pipe, cast iron pipe and concrete jackets have all 
been used as protection in these waters. The breakage of vitrified pipe has 
been such that it is no longer employed, except in still water, where-such 
breakage is improbable. The first cost of cast iron pipe protection and the 
fairly rapid decay of the unprotected piles above the armor, combine to 
make this method of questionable economy unless the timber receives pre- 
servative treatment. The engineer officers of the U. S. Army state that the 
protection secured from concrete jackets depends upon the character of the 
work and the location. 

Yellow or Muntz metal has been used as sheathing for piles. The oldest 
structure so protected of record is a boat house at St. Marks, Fla., built 
about 1907. Repairs were necessary in 1913 and a recent inspection showed 
the metal to have become quite brittle and its further service doubtful. 
The piles of a boat house at Ship Island Lighthouse, built about 1912, were 
sheathed with yellow metal. Deterioration in 1922 was such that it was 
decided to incase them with vitrified pipe. 

Many lighthouse structures in this district are built on piles protected 
with cast iron pipe. A partial list follows: 


Condition Re- 


Name of Structure Location Date Built ported in 1922 
Punta Rassa Range Front Light, 

Be od ce ok ee etre San Carlos Bay, Ela. .....s.... 1904 * 
Peace Creek Light, Fla......... Charlotte Harbor, Fla. 572 1904 * 
Sneads Point Shoal Beacon...... Manatee River Entrance, Fla... 1896 * 
Anclote River Light No. 1...... Anclote Anchorage, Fla........ 1910 * 
Withlacoochee River Light...... Withlacoochee River Entrance, 

Hila by aie = oe eee ee 1906 
lurning -Pomt Licht sere ene ee Cedar Keys Harbor, Fla....... 1899 * 
Carrabelle River (3 lights)...... St. George Sound, Pla. ..-4.05. 1899, 1909 and 1913 | Good 
Crooked River Front Light...... St. George,pound, Elan. ee 1913 Good 
St. George Sound (4 lights)...... St. George Sound, Fla......... 1896, 1904 and 1913 | Good 
St. Andrews Bay (10 lights)...:.. St. Andrews Bay, Fla......... 1912, 1920 Good 
Cobbs Pointelightie ane eee Choctawhatchee Bay, Fla...... 1920 - Good 
Santa Rosa Sound (10 lights)=-2= |) Blorida.) 20) en anne 1914, 1915 and ‘1919 | Good 
Pensacola Bay Range Front Light} Florida...................,.. 1918 Good 
Mobile Channel (22 lights)...... Alabania)2ha-s1ae Bi hisiale Ppa seal 1905,1917 - | Good 
Pascagoula River Entrance (7 
lights) eee eee Mississippi; uit ae ee 1904, 1907 and 1917 | Good 
Biloxi Harbor (4 lights)......... IMISSISSIp Dino aseeios Eero eee 1901 
Gulfport Channel (6 lights)...... IMssissip ple oe eee 1910, 1916, 1918and 
1921 Good 
Bayou Cork and Bayou Courant 
(2 lights) Saas. eee eee Bastian Bay. las eee 1917 Good 
Timalier Lighthouse............ Louisiane so See 1917 Good 
Horn Island Lighthouses... 7..).2.) MUssissip pie aierere 1908 Were easily cut with 


cold chisel. Lower 
section very rusty. 
Round Island Spit Lighthouse. ..| Mississippi................... 1900 Metal softening. 
Impression can be 
made with file 
sharpened to the 
edge of a knife. 


*All casings are 2 feet below mud line and 2 feet above mean high water. The entire underwater parts of 
piles were inspected by diver in August-November, 1914, and all found in good condition. The upper part of 
piles were last inspected during 1921-22 and some of them found to be decayed above the top of the cast iron. 


349 


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MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 353 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—There is approximately 3,300 feet of docking space at the 
Pensacola Naval Air Station of stone and concrete, 2,100 feet of which af- 
fords a depth of 30 feet at M.L.W., the remaining 1,200 feet, a depth of 10 
feet at M.L.W.; and a concrete beach along the shore line for approximately 
800 feet. The main pier is constructed of concrete piling and is a recent 
structure.. The new quay wall, connecting to the old stone and concrete 
quay wall, is of similar construction. The Wet Basin, constructed of stone 
and concrete, with a concrete bottom, affording 10 feet depth at M.L.W., 
was originally intended for use of the Old Spanish Drydock, which was re- 
moved to the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Both of these structures are in ex- 
cellent condition, with the exception that some sand leaks have developed in 
the new concrete pier and quay wall on account of small openings between 
the sheet piles. The concrete beach protection was constructed with a con- 
crete retaining wall on wooden piling and was completed in August, 1923. 

In the year 1916 a wood bulkhead was constructed at the south end of the 
station. Yellow pine piles, sheet piling and wales were used, treated with 
12 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot. This structure has been completely 
destroyed by marine borers, and is at this time, November, 1923, being re- 
placed with a reinforced concrete retaining wall, constructed on yellow pine 
untreated piles. 

That part of the wooden bulkhead, to the west of and adjoining the above- 
mentioned bulkhead, 850 feet in length and removed in the year 1922, was 
constructed in the year 1917 of yellow pine piles, sheet piling and wales, 
treated with 12 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot and was completely de- 
stroyed by marine borers. It was replaced with a reinforced concrete re- 
taining wall and beach, constructed on untreated yellow pine piles. Work 
completed August, 1923. 

The fender piles on the new quay wall and pier, placed in 1920, have been 
considerably damaged by marine borers. Piles are yellow pine, treated with 
12 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot. 


Main Pier and New Quay Wall. 
Precast Piles: 


Type, design, size, shape, date installed—Piling are interlocking re- 
inforced concrete, T & G, square, installed in 1919. 

Length exposed to salt water (between mud line and low water), 3 
to 32 feet; between low and high water, 2 to 3 feet; above, 101% feet. 

Concrete materials—Gravel, river sand, cement, water. Std. Portland 
cement was utilized and fresh water used in mixing. 

Reinforcement—Havemeyer square bar (steel). 

Concrete mix—2:4:6 proportions, density determination used. 

Curing—Conditions, length of time, season, weather. Thirty days’ 
curing required, fresh water used in curing. Piles were kept wet. 

Handling—Piles were used from 30 to 90 days after molding. They 
were carefully handled, only proved piles being used. 

Driving—Cushion block steam hammer was used; piles were jetted 
also. Occasional pile rejected for hard bottom and granulated head. 

Condition and description of defects or deterioration—Piling in ex- 
cellent condition; concrete encasement prevents erosion. Fill seeping 
through piling at certain points due to conditions at various points 
making it impossible to get piles absolutely sand tight. 


354 HARBOR REPORTS 


Decks and superstructures—Girders, arches, beams, slabs, walls: 

Type, design, description—Wood piling and deck, protected with 
sand due to Teredo activities. Concrete top. 

Exposure, height above water, wave action, spray—Exposed to from 
1 to 3 feet wave action, variation of tide. 

Concrete materials—Sand, gravel, cement. 

Reinforcement—Steel mesh. 

Mix—2:4:6. 

Forms, placing of concrete—Wooden forms or framing used. 

Curing—21 days. 

Present condition—Excellent. 


Methods of protecting concrete structures—Continuous waling and fen- 
der piling every 10 feet. 


Precautions in mixing and placing—Due care was used in mixing 
and placing to insure proper consistency and proper placing. 
Density determination used. 
Waterproofing—None. 
Uniting of joints, etc.—None. 
Costs: 
Unit costs for typical or special concrete work: 
Concrete piling—$3.545 per linear foot. 
Costs of methods of protection used—Creosoting, $64.77 per thou- 
sand feet. 

Remarks, conclusions and recommendations: Concrete structures on 
the station, with the exception of the old concrete beach protected 
by wooden bulkhead, are in excellent condition; maintenance work 
has not been required to date. 


Conclusions 


The period of inactivity of teredine borers seems to extend from about 
December to April, inclusive, in most harbors along this coast, though the 
total cessation of growth of animals already in the wood does not seem to be 
as marked as in more northerly waters. 

The average life of piles creosoted to refusal seems to be about 10 to 12 
years. 

Cast iron armor as used by the Lighthouse Service and the Louisville & 
Nashville R. R. seems to be the most efficient method of protection if the 
timber is protected against decay above the iron. 

The concrete structures reported are of comparatively recent construction 
and no conclusions regarding their probable life can be drawn. 


MOBILE HARBOR 

Description 

Mobile Bay (Fig. 120), lies 40 miles west of Pensacola Bay entrance and 
90 miles northeast of the South Pass of the Mississippi River, and is the 
approach to Mobile and the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. The entrance 
width between Mobile Point on the east and Dauphin Island on the west is — 
234 miles. The main ship channel across the bar has a depth of 30 feet and ~ 
a minimum width of 300 feet. A dredged channel inside the entrance, hav- 
ing a minimum depth of 25 feet and a minimum width of 200 feet, extends 


Fie. 120 


i 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 


= = aa TEST BOARDS 
ee MOBILE BAY 
Sui ALABAMA 1923 


FORT MORGAN 


NAUTICAL MILES ; 
(3240 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 
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MOBILE 355 


the length of the bay to the city of Mobile at the mouth of the Mobile River, 
a distance of about 25 miles. 

The prevailing winds are southerly and southeasterly in spring, southerly 
in summer, northerly in fall, and northerly and easterly in winter; the 
strongest being the southerly and northerly winds of summer and winter, 
respectively. The range of tide varies from 3.6 feet at the entrance to the 
bay (Fort Morgan) to 3.4 feet in the Mobile River near the mouth of 
Chickasaw Creek. The currents, which vary considerably with the force and 
direction of the wind, have a normal velocity of 2 knots per hour in the main 
ship channel at the entrance, and about one-half knot per hour in the 
dredged channel. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Up to the time of the present investigations, marine 
borers, both molluscan and crustacean, were known to be present at Fort 
Morgan. The former had been found in Mobile River up as far as Chicka- 
sabogue, but the damage to structures in the harbor proper had always been 
considered negligible and to require no protective measures, the piling along 
shore and under wharves having given no evidence of the presence of borers. 
The shipworms found in the river had been confined to timber lying on the 
bottom of the Main Ship Channel and couid not be considered as conclusive 
evidence of local attack. However, slight attacks on the obstructions placed 
at the mouth of the Spanish River during the Civil War had been noticed, 
thus demonstrating beyond doubt the ability of the shipworm to exist in 
that locality. The G. M. & N. Railroad Company considered their struc- 
tures (Piers No. 1 and No. 8), located at the mouth of the Mobile River, to 
have been immune from attack for the past twenty years. 

No trace of crustacean borers had been found farther up the bay than 
Fort Morgan. 

At Fort Morgan, the life of an unprotected pile is placed at not to exceed 
ninety days, whereas there is said to be piling in the river proper with sixty 
years’ service. 


Committee Investigations—Test boards of standard type were located 
as follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line} M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Fort Morgan—At entrance to Bay| A-2...... iN abi hicovaay aA een ee Oe Oct. 1, 1922 2.0 as) (0) 
Middle Bay Light—16 miles from 
GUGUAT CEmeeere ria entree tere eo os TASS nee Ee I Nagsthies aeeagereusoates 6 Oct. 13, 1922 2.0 20.3 
Beacon No. 4—25 miles from en- 
UR ole Sins oo e 6 Cea in act An4 cece s ATI Y Bette ekee Oct. 10, 1922 0.0 11.9 
Mobile, G. M. & N. Pier No. 3— 
27 miles from entrance....... L-8-1..... Dishthousee enim. Sept. 15, 1922 0.5 12.0 
Mobile, U.S. Coal & Ore Wharf— 
30 miles from entrance....... NEI Asked ae IATINY eres cess a Os Oct. 15, 1922 1.5 11.5 


The results of the examination of the test blocks were as follows: 


A-2—Several hundred specimens of Bankia gouldi were found in block 1. 
Succeeding blocks were well filled with Bankia gouldi, and destruction pro- 
gressed rapidly. The old board and blocks were removed March 1, 1923, and 
a test board of the 1923 model was substituted. The end of the season of 
activity was found to have occurred some time between November 15 and 


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MOBILE 307 


December 1. The beginning of the new season occurred between April 1 
and May 1, 1923, as indicated by the absence of shipworms on block 1 and 
their appearance on center block 2 removed May 1, after having been in the 
water one month. All blocks showed Limnoria action of from slight to 
medium intensity. Two specimens of Martesia were found on block 9, 1922 
model, removed February 15, 1923. Associated organisms were Ostrea, 
Bryozoa and Balanus. 

A-3—Bankia gouldi (one specimen) first appeared on block 6, removed 
January 16, and was absent from succeeding blocks 7 to 10 inclusive. The 
reappearance of Bankia gouldi occurred in block 11, removed April 7. This 
block was well filled and block 12, removed two weeks later, was completely 
filled with Bankia gouldi. Blocks 18 to 16 inclusive contained no specimens, 
and blocks 19 to 23 contained from 1 to 2 specimens each of Bankia gouldi. 
It would thus appear that the blocks occupying the upper half of the board 
were above the level of attack. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryo- 
zoa and Algae. | 

A-4—One specimen of Bankia gouldi was found in each of blocks 3 and 4, 
removed December 1 and 15, respectively. Block 5 contained 2 specimens, 
block 7 about 50, and in block 8 and all succeeding blocks, the destruction 
was complete. One specimen of Martesia was found in block 13, removed 
May 8. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. 

L-8-1—Two specimens of Bankia gouldi were found in block 4, removed 
November 16, and one in each of blocks 5 and 6; 10 to 15 were found in 
each of blocks 7 to 10 inclusive; about 50 were found in block 11 and about 
100 in block 12. On the opposite side of the board, blocks 13 to 23 inclusive, 
contained each from 1 to 8 specimens of Bankia gouldi, and block 24 about 
50. Replacement block 25, placed September 30, 1922, and removed October 
1, 1923, contained no specimens. Balanus and Bryozoa were also present. 

A-5—One shipworm only was found from the blocks of this station. This 
was a Bankia gouldi, and appeared in block 9, removed March 1, 1923. The 
specimen, about 20 mm. long, had been long dead. Associated organisms 
were Balanus and Bryozoa. 

In addition to the above, specimens of Bankia gouldi, said to have been 
taken from fresh water, were sent in by the Alabama Dry Dock and Ship- 
building Company. This company’s plant is located on the east bank of the 
Channel, about one mile up stream from the G. M. & N. Pier. 

The season of activity of Bankia gouldi in this territory ended about 
December 1, 1922, and began somewhat later than April 1, 1923, thus pro- 
viding a period of immunity of approximately four months between the 
dates above cited. No specimens of Limnoria were found above Fort Mor- 
gan, which confirms the experience of the U. 8S. Engineer Corps. 

The heavy attack at the G. M. & N. Pier No. 3 was a complete surprise to 
all concerned, as the salinity of the water at that point is much below what 
has hitherto been considered requisite for the continued existence of this 
species (Bankia gouldi) of shipworm. As soon as the first organism made 
its appearance, therefore, salinity observations were deemed advisable, and 
have been made twice daily of both surface and bottom samples, beginning 
January 6, 1923. The results of these observations are shown on Fig. 121. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote impregnation (20 pounds per cubic foot) is employed by the 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., for all timber exposed to the attack of marine 


358 HARBOR REPORTS 


borers at Fort Morgan. Timber so treated is said to last from eight to ten 
years. 

Pier No. 3 of the G. M. & N. Railroad Company mentioned above is con- 
structed of untreated timber, the piles being capped at from six to eight 
inches below mean low water. Pier No. 1 of the same company is supported 
by creosoted piles, the impregnation being 18 pounds per cubic foot. 

Further information on methods of protection will be found in the report 
on Gulf of Mexico—Mississippi River to Key West. 


Conclusions 


Unprotected timber in the Mobile River should have an expected life of 
from five to ten years unless dry weather causes a continued comparatively 
high salinity, when destruction may be rapid. 


At Fort Morgan, the rate of destruction is much more rapid, a single sea- 
son being sufficient time in which to destroy unprotected timber. 


Piles at Fort Morgan should have the best protection that can be devised, 
and protection is certainly needed to the mouth of the river. Owing to the 
variable salinity conditions in the river and consequent liability to attack, 
it would seem wise to protect all piles under important structures for a dis- 
tance of at least 28 miles above Fort Morgan. 


GULF OF MEXICO—SABINE PASS TO POINT ISABEL 
General Description 


This report covers the harbors of Sabine Pass, Port Arthur, Galveston, 
Houston Ship Channel, Rockport, Port Aransas, Corpus Christi and Point 
Isabel—all in the State of Texas. 


The coast line throughout the territory is generally sandy, and the en- 
trances to the harbors are obstructed by shifting sand bars over which the 
channel depths are changeable. Most of the entrances are being improved 
by dredging, and in some cases jetties to maintain or increase the present 
depths have been built. The tidal currents have considerable velocity in all 
of the entrances, and their direction is affected by the force and direction of 
the wind. 


Sabine Pass (Fig. 122), 50 miles northeastward of Galveston entrance, is 
the approach to Port Arthur, Orange and Beaumont. There is a dredged 
channel 28 feet deep and 100 feet wide between jetties. The mean rise and 
fall of tide is 1.5 feet. | 


Port Arthur (Fig. 122) is located on the west shore of Sabine Lake, and 
has deep water connection with Sabine Pass by means of the Port Arthur 
Ship Canal to Taylor Bayou, and by the Sabine-Neches Canal along its 
southeast point, the controlling depth being 2634 feet. The mean rise and 
fall of the tide at the site of the test boards is 1.0 foot. 


Galveston Harbor (Fig. 123) is divided into two parts, Bolivar Roads and 
Galveston Channel. From Bolivar Roads, which is the deep water way be- 
tween Bolivar Point and Pelican Island, there is a dredged channel 200 feet 
wide and 24 feet deep to Port Bolivar, a terminal of the Gulf, Colorado and 
Santa Fe Railroad, about four miles north of Galveston. Galveston Channel 
is a dredged channel 30 to 35 feet deep and 1,000 to 1,200 feet wide, extend- 
ing for about 3% miles from Bolivar Roads southwestward and westward, 
past Fort Point and the northwestern end of Galveston Island and along the 


SABINE PASS TO POINT ISABEL 359 


northern waterfront of the City of Galveston. The mean rise and fall of 
tide is 1.6 feet at Fort Point and Pier 18. 

Houston Ship Channel (Fig. 124) extends from Galveston Harbor across 
Galveston Bay and through parts of San Jacinto River and Buffalo Bayou to 
the city of Houston, a distance of 50 miles. The canal has been dredged to 
a depth of 25 feet in a channel 100 feet wide for 44 miles to the turning 
basin, 6 miles below Houston. As will be noted in the biological section of 
this report, shipworms have been found in this channel at a point midway 
between Lynchburg and Clinton, a distance of about 35 miles from Gal- 
veston. 

Aransas Pass (Figs. 125 and 126) lies 154 miles southwest of Galveston 
entrance and 118 miles north of the mouth of the Rio Grande. It is the 
principal approach to Aransas and Corpus Christi Bays. The depth of water 
through the pass is 24 feet with a channel width of 100 to 400 feet. A 
dredged channel 11 feet deep extends from the inner end of the Pass to Port 
Aransas. Rockport is on the west shore of Aransas Bay and there is a 
depth of 7 feet at wharves. Corpus Christi is on the western side of Corpus 
Christi Bay, 18 miles from Aransas Pass. A dredged channel 100 feet wide 
and 12 feet deep extends from the deep water in the bay to a turning basin 
1,000 feet square, off the wharves. The mean rise and fall of tide at Aran- 
sas Pass is 2.0 feet. 

Point Isabel (Fig. 127) is 214 miles west of the entrance to Brazos San- 
tiago, and about 7 miles north of the mouth of the Rio Grande. The mean 
rise and fall of tide is 2.0 feet. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Both shipworms and crustacean borers have been known 
to exist throughout this territory, except in the fresh water portions of the 
dredged channels. The life of unprotected piling is estimated to be from 
three to six months in the summer season at Galveston; four months at 
Sabine Pass, and five to twelve months at Aransas Pass, depending on the 
season of the year when driven. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as 
shown in the table on page 366. 
Results of these tests to date are as follows: 


A-8—Bankia gouldi first appeared in block No. 3, removed October 15, 
1922, the previous blocks having numerous barnacles. An average of about 
20 specimens of Bankia gouldi, some of them 10 inches long, was found in 
each of the succeeding blocks, including block 12, removed March 1, 1923, 
when a new type board was substituted. The end of the season of activity 
occurred between November 1 and 15, 1922. Center block 5 of the new 
board contained the first specimens (about 30) of the new brood of Bankia 
gouldi. This block was removed August 15, 1923, after being exposed one 
month. The longest tubes noted were about 20 mm. but in the following 
month 200 animals up to 6 inches in length were found, and this length had 
‘increased to 9 inches by October 15. Associated organisms were Balanus, 
some Bryozoa and Algae. 


KCS-1 and 2—Twenty-six blocks from each of these boards have been ex- 
amined. No life of any kind was found. 

A thorough investigation of this territory was made by the Texas Oil 
Company. Its report states that up to about 1900, shipworms were very de- 


360 HARBOR REPORTS 


structive. The Kansas City Southern Railroad docks, built in 1897-1898, 
were found to be badly damaged in 1901 and had to be redriven. Since that 
time the borers have practically disappeared from the turning basin but not 
from the remainder of the canal. 

A similar investigation in the harbor of Beaumont showed no evidence of 
serious borer attack, though a small amount of evidence was found of the 
occasional presence of a few shipworms. 


SP-1—Attack began immediately, the first block showing about 200 young 
shipworms to the square inch. In succeeding blocks identification was made 
of Teredo bartschi and Bankia gouldi, the latter appearing in the propor- 
tion of about 1 to 100 specimens of Teredo bartschi. The destruction was 
so rapid that it was necessary to replace the board with a metal bar. All 
the original and replacement blocks were removed April 1, 1923, and sent in 
for inspection. New blocks of revised type were attached at the same time. 
The end of the season of activity was found to have occurred between 
November 1 and 15. The first shipworms (about 100) to appear on the new 
blocks were found in block 2, removed June 1, 1923, after being in the water 
one month; after this time the rate of destruction was very high. Heavy 
damage by Limnoria occurred. Other organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 


A-7—Shipworms appeared on block 1 but were not so plentiful as at SP-1. 
Destruction was severe but did not progress as rapidly as at SP-1. The 
majority of shipworms in the first blocks were Bankia gouldi, but in suc- 
ceeding blocks Teredo bartschi was far more numerous, averaging about 80 
per cent of the total. The old board was replaced by the new type May 1, 
1923. The end of the season of activity was found to have occurred about 
December 31, 1922, and the period of immunity lasted until May 1, 1923. 
Of the new blocks, Bankia gouldi first appeared on block 1, removed June 1, 
1928, after having been exposed one month. Bankia gouldi showed exceed- 
ingly rapid growth at this station, center block No. 4, removed September 1, 
after one month’s immersion, containing animals 2 to 3 inches long. Block 
4, removed September 1, 1923, after 4 months’ exposure, was completely de- 
stroyed. Up to that date no specimens of Teredo bartschi had been found. 
Limnoria was not numerous in these blocks. Associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa and Anomia. 


A-6—The rate of destruction was greater than that at A-7, and about the 
same as at SP-l. Both Bankia gouldi and Teredo bartschi were found, the 
former in far greater numbers than the latter. A period of immunity from 
Bankia gouldi from January 1 to May 1 was established. A new board of 
the 1923 model was substituted for the original one May 1, 1928. Bankia 
gouldi appeared on the first block, removed June 1, 1923. No specimens of 
Teredo bartschi have been found to date (October 1, 1923). Associated or- 
ganisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Ostrea. 

SF-1—Destruction was more rapid here than at any other point under 
observation. All specimens examined were Bankia gouldi, and complete de- 
struction was accomplished in six weeks’ time. Associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa and Ostrea. One young specimen of Martesia was found. 


PH-1—Bankia gouldi first appeared in block 7, removed February 1, 1928. 


None appeared in succeeding blocks until No. 16 was removed (June 17, — 


1923), which contained one specimen. Associated organisms were Balanus 
and Bryozoa. A bulkhead at this point was completely destroyed by Bankia 
gouldi in 1908-1909. 


Fia. 122 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
SABINE PASS AND LAKE 


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366 HARBOR REPORTS 


PH-2—Bankia gouldi first appeared on block 2, removed October, 1922. 
From 50 to 100 specimens were found in succeeding blocks, including No. 
11, removed February 15, 1923, and destruction was almost complete. One 
specimen of Teredo bartschi was found in the old board. A 1923 model 
board was substituted March 1, 1923. No shipworms were found on blocks 
removed as late as August, 1923. Associated organisms observed were 
Balanus and Ostrea. 


PH-3—The attack during the season of 1922 was similar to that on PH-2, 
but no new board was placed in 1928. 


PH-4—A large number of specimens of Balanus was the only life found. 
A specimen of mulberry timber from the hull of a sunken schooner in place 
twenty years at this point showed a light attack by Bankia gouldt. 


PH-5—No life of any kind. A section of a pine pile from an old wharf 
located about half way between this point and PH-4 was found to contain a 
single specimen of Bankia gouldi. 


PH-6—No life of any kind. A single analysis made of the water at this 
point November 21, 1922, showed no salt. 


SAP-1—Bankia gouldi was first found in block 6, removed January 1, 
1923. Many hundreds of dead shipworm larvae were found in block 8, re- 
moved February 1, 1923. The block contained about 20 mature specimens, 
both Bankia gouldi and Teredo bartschi, with tubes up to 4 inches in length. 
This board was lost, and consequently no date of ending of the season of 
activity could be established. A new board of revised type was installed 
April 1, 1923. The first appearance of Bankia gouldi was in center block 2, 


TEST BOARDS, SABINE PASS TO POINT ISABEL 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Sabine Pass, Texase: ..... cacao < A= 3c ee APM oc oie ie his os eben ee 0.5 15.0 
Port Arthur, Texas—Slip No. 3.. KOSI ....}| Kansas City Southern 
Ri Rese June 15, 1922 0.1 13.4 
Port Arthur, Texas—Texas Co 
W hares ete terroir ats coerce KCS-2....] Kansas City Southern 
EU Sei hee eis ae June 15, 1922 OSs 14.9 
Galveston, Texas—Pier C.......| SP-1..... Southern Pacific R. R.} Aug. 1, 1922 7.0 9.0 
Galveston, Texas—Pier 18...... 7 eo a fan! RA eA eo: Sept. 1, 1922 6.9 9.6 
Galveston, Texas—Hort Pomt.).| A-G2 2. 2a) Army Gens Sept. i: 1922 10 8.2 
Galveston, Texas—Port Bolivar.| SF-1..... Gur Colorado & San- 
ta Fe REER ae eee July 1, 19222 a eee tee 
Houston Ship Channel— 
Morgan Point—Galveston Bay| PH-1..... Port ot Houston)... Oct. 16, 1922 1.0 6.5 
Baytown—4 miles above Mor- 
fan Pomto, ae ee ere Med EP occ Port of Houston..... Sept. 1, 1922 £0 17.0 
Baytown—4 miles above Mor- 
gan’ Pointu.. car eles PH-3aeee Port of Houston..... Sept. 1, 1922 E20 14.5 
Gulf Pipe Line Wharf—8 miles 
above Morgan Point....... PH-425e5 Port of Houston..... Novl6; 192371). ba eee ee ieee 
Sinclair Oil Co.—19 miles above 
Morsan Ont eee een PH-57 ee Port of Houston..... Sept. 1, 1922 10) 9.0 
Turning Basin, Houston—22 
miles above Morgan Point. .| PH-6..... Port of Houston..... Octs1; 1922- “leieeeeee 
Rockport, Texas—S. A. P. Wharf.| SAP-1....| San Antonio & Aran- 
sas Pass ‘R..R:.... «| Oct 1) LO2 20 eee eee eee een 
Port Aransas, lexasz..e.. e224: SAP-2....| San Antonio & Aran- 
sas Pass R. RR... . 2 Oct.:L; 1922 al) sce ee ate 
Aransas Pass, Dexas........sae- A=O ee ee JA PONY Gi hota. c wea Sept. 1, 1922 10 O2 
Corpus Christi, exasie. onesies SAP-3....} San *xntoniG & Aran- 
sas Pass R. R...... Oct. 1; 1922) ee eee 
Poimt: Isabel lexase...: occa e es Y D-80 1257 |(NGVY.ao ses ae keer Oct. 31, 1922 pale) 44.0 


*Board suspended in a horizontal position. 


367 


SABINE PASS TO POINT ISABEL 


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368 HARBOR REPORTS 


removed June 1, 1923, after having been in water one month. No specimens 
of Teredo bartschi have been found to date (August 1). Associated organ- 
isms were Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia). 


SAP-2—Bankia gouldi first appeared in block 2, removed October 15, 
1922, and destruction progressed rapidly. A few specimens of Teredo sp. J 
were found in subsequent blocks. A new board of the 1923 model was in- 
stalled April 1, 1923, the old board having been lost. The first Bankia 
gouldi appeared in center block 2, removed June 1, after being in water one 
month, but since specimens over 4 inches long were found in block 2, which 
had been immersed two months, it is probable that the attack started in 
April. The first Teredo sp. J appeared in September in large numbers. The 
damage by Limnoria was _ inconsiderable. Associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa (encrusting and branching), Ostrea and Anomia. 


A-9—Shipworms appeared in the first block, removed September 15, 1922, 
and destruction proceeded rapidly. In the first blocks specimens of Teredo 
outnumbered those of Bankia, but the Bankia grew much more rapidly, 
reaching a length of 414 inches in one month. This condition as to number, 
however, was reversed in later blocks. Teredo bartschi, Teredo sp. J, and 
Bankia gouldi were identified. The old board was replaced March 1, 1923, 
by one of the 1923 model. The end of the season of activity was found to 
have occurred between December 15, 1922, and January 1, 1923. Bankia 
gouldi was found in center block 2, of the new board, in water one month 
and removed April 30, 1923. Teredo sp. J appeared in the block removed 
October 1, 1923. Limnoria action was severe, and some specimens of 
Martesia were found. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Ostrea 
and Algae. . 


SAP-3—About 100 specimens of Bankia gouldi appeared in block 2, re- 
moved October 31; Teredo bartschi in the next block two weeks later. 
Specimens of Teredo bartscht were far more numerous than those of Bankia 
gouldi in blocks from this station. The end of the season of activity ap- 
pears to have occurred about October 15, as no larvae were found after that 
date. The destruction was complete and the board was replaced by one of 
revised type, April 1. No shipworms had appeared up to May 1, 1928, 
shortly after which date the new board was lost. Associated organisms 
were Balanus and encrusting Bryozoa. 


YD-801—Shipworms, mostly Bankia gouldi, appeared in the first block, 
removed November 16, 1922, and destruction proceeded rapidly. A few 
specimens of Teredo sp. J and sp. Q were found. The board was lost 
February 16, 1922. A new board of revised type was installed April 13, 
1923, and the first blocks, removed one month later, were well filled with 
Bankia gouldi with tubes averaging 20 mm. Teredo sp. J was first found 
in center block 4, removed August 18, after one month in the water; the 
center block, removed October 15, contained several hundred. 

It will be noted from the above that a period of immunity from shipworm 
attack existed at Sabine Pass extending from November 15, 1922, to about 
July 1, 1923; at Galveston from January 1 to May 1; at Aransas Pass from 
January 1 to April 15, and at Corpus Christi from October 15 to about 
May 1. 

Salinity and temperature observations, and tests for oxygen content and 
hydrogen-ion concentration of the water at Pier C, Galveston, were recorded 
by the Southern Pacific Company. Salinity and temperature observations 


j 


369 


SABINE PASS TO POINT ISABEL 


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were recorded by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe Railway at Port Bolivar, © 


and by the San Antonio & Aransas Pass Railroad at Port Aransas and 
Corpus Christi. These records are shown graphically on Figs. 128, 129, 130 
and 1381. 


Field Tests—Tests of the protective qualities of copper bands and wire 
were undertaken by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe Railroad. Fifty-four 
blocks bound with this material spaced at intervals ranging from ‘2 inch to 
21% inches were placed in the water at Port Bolivar, November 22, 1922. 
Four of these blocks were removed for examination February 22, 1923. Due 
allowance being made for seasonal cessation of activity, the inspection 
showed no material retardation which could be definitely traced to the effect 
of the metal. The remaining blocks were lost and were not replaced. 

Comparative tests of the resistant qualities of different kinds of woods 
are being carried on by the same company. Samples of longleaf yellow pine, 
douglas fir, loblolly pine, white oak, toledo wood and manbarklak were sub- 
merged at Port Bolivar, November 11, 1922, each sample being enclosed in 
a galvanized wire basket and all secured in a large container made of gal- 
vanized wire. One of the specimens of pine was lost. The other, together 
with the white ocak and douglas fir samples, were removed from the water 
February 15 and inspected. Summarizing the results of this inspection, Mr. 
Clapp states as follows: 


1. The attack by Bankia gouldi was not severe during the three months 
these test pieces were submerged. The pine would have been completely 
riddled in that length of time if placed in July, judging by the regular test 
blocks. 


2. The original object of the test was to throw some light on whether 
marked differences in the shell could be seen in specimens boring into differ- 
ent types of wood. The specimens from these different woods cannot be 
distinguished from one another, as not the slightest difference has been 
found. 


3. The difference in attack on the different portions of the block is as 
marked in these test pieces as in the blocks. 


4. The severe attack on the oak, the fact that the tubes are longer, and a 
larger percentage of the animals survive the young stage, overshadows the 
original object of the test. It is remarkable and unexpected. 


The toledo wood and manbarklak showed no attack. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—Creosote Impregnation is the method in general 
use for the protection of timber from marine borers in this territory. 
The record of piles treated to refusal (22 to 24 pounds per cubic foot) with 
creosote is in general a good one, although such piles are more or less sub- 
ject to Limnoria attack. There are, however, examples of short life which 
are far from reassuring, and which perhaps can only be explained by im- 
perfect treatment or by important variations in the chemical composition 
of the oil used, or damage to the timber after treating. A sufficient number 
of service records have not been obtained to justify definite conclusions. 


Armor—Protection with cast iron pipe is a method employed by the Light- 
house Service generally throughout the Gulf district. The structures in 
the western portion are of recent construction, but it will be noted from 
the list given below that marked deterioration has already occurred in the 
case of one of them. 


WEST COAST OF MEXICO Si 


Location and Structure Date Built Condition 1922 
iimbaher lighthouse, Lacs... :<.s +c... .60 Sees 1917 Good. 


Port O’Connor (2 lights) Matagorda Bay, Texas. 1916 Good. 


Sabine Pass, Louisiana and Texas—6 Lights.... 1916 Structure at entrance shows scale having the . 
appearance of carbon, 14 inch thick, the un- 
derlying metal being soft and easiky-dented. 
Other 5 structures in good condition. 


Conclusions 


Timber supporting structures in the territory covered by this report, 
except at the Port Arthur Turning Basin and in the upper 10 miles of the 
Houston Ship Canal, must be protected from borers if more than one 
season’s life is desired, and in some locations an unprotected pile cannot 
be depended on for more than a few months during the season of activity. 
Based on 1922-23 investigations it seems that timber placed in the water 
after December 1 is not likely to be seriously weakened before June 1. 

From the small number of service records available, conclusions as to the 
efficacy of various methods of protection used in this particular district can 
not be safely drawn. 


WEST COAST OF MEXICO 


Through the courtesy of the Southern Pacific Company and the Kansas 
City, Mexico & Orient Railway, the Committee has been afforded the op- | 
portunity of studying the activity of marine borers in the tidewater termi- 
nals of these companies. Testboards were installed at Guaymas (Fig. 132) 
and Mazatlan (Fig. 1383) by the Southern Pacific Company, and at Topolo- 
bampo by the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient Railway, as shown in the 
following table. 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 

Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Guaymas—Ardilla Wharf....... SPa2ie asst Southern Pacific Co..} Oct. 10, 1922 10.0 8.0 
EPOPOLOUATIDO® «6 ac sleectsr see «ls ENO a1 ae tC Cav ee O eyes Pe eD.oL, LO23 eli... wll vane. sie 
Mazatlan—Urias Wharf........ SPeoeeeee Southern Pacific Co..} Aug. 20, 1922 0 G2 


The results of the inspections are as follows: 


SP-2—No borers other than a few specimens of Limnoria were found 
though the associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (branching and 
encrusting) and Anomia. 

KMO-1—The first specimen of Bankia mexicana appeared on the 3rd 
block, removed March 16, but no considerable growth occurred until after 
May 1; by the end of July animals 10 inches long were found. The 
blocks were completely filled by August 15. Limnoria was present but not 
in great numbers. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (encrusting 
and branching) Anomia and sponges. 


SP-3—Limnoria appeared on the first block and larve of Bankia mexicana 
on the second, removed September 16. The growth of this species was 
very rapid reaching a length of about 6 inches in the next month and by 
the next April the blocks were so thoroughly filled that they were crumbling. 


312 HARBOR REPORTS 


A new board of the 1923 model replaced the former one on May 1, 1923. 
The attack by Bankia on this board commenced in June and became heavier 
in the following months. The damage done by Limnoria was relatively 
unimportant. The last blocks inspected were removed December 1, 1923, 
_ and showed continued activity. Associated organisms were Balanus and 
Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula). 


cae SAN DIEGO BAY 
Description 


The entrance to San Diego Bay (Fig. 134) is about 10 miles north of the 
Mexican border. The Bay is the best natural harbor south of San Francisco 


O000000 


LaLagana 


saat one 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
GUAYMAS HARBOR 
MEXICO 


Fig. 132 


and affords perfect protection in any weather. It is separated from the 
ocean by a sand spit, narrow at the south and wider at the north end. 
The Bay is about 14 miles long, varying in width from 14 mile at the en- 


trance to a maximum of 11% miles and having an area of about 16 square 


miles. The channel depth at the entrance is 35 feet and the depth at the 


'- “wharves: from 18 to 33 feet, with some points in the Bay between 50 and 60 


feet deep. 


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373 


Fic. 133 


374 HARBOR REPORTS 


The winds are principally from the northwest and west and seldom exceed 
25 miles per hour. 

The tidal currents vary from 1 to 2.5 knots per hour. 

The salinity varies from a minimum of 31.9 to a maximum of 33.9 parts 
per 1000 with a mean of 33.6 parts per 1000. The maximum range of tide 
is 9.9 feet with an average of 5.6 feet, while the temperature range is from 
a minimum of 56° Fahr. to a maximum of 75° Fahr., with an average of 
63° Fahr. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—lIt is the opinion of several of the wharf owners that 
until about 1912 Limnoria was the only boring organism in this harbor. 
This borer was so active that an untreated pile would last only about two 
years. For the last ten years molluscan borers as well as Limnoria have 
been active and the combination of these two destructive animals has some- 
what shortened the life to be expected from untreated timber. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed as shown 
below: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 

Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line } M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Mooring Dolphin No. 2......... PY D=LLOL SIENA Vy eee ee Jan. 15, 1923 1.0 18.0 
Mooring Dolphin No. 16........ Oh O25 Navin eee eee Jan. 15, 1923 1.0 15.5 
Mooring Dolphin No. 46........ YD-IMOSS I NAVYaoeue ee eee Jan. 15, 1923 156 17.5 
Ui SNe tel Depot ene Y D-1104..|-Nawy oh -n.. coeeee Feb. 1, 1923 120 16.5 
Municipal Piep gees eee ees YD=-1105. Vi Navi cae nee Feb. 1, 1923 1.0 14.5 
INavaleAIrestatiolennes aeirte ane Y D=1106.;\INaivay eee eee June 1, 1923 1.0 19.0 
Navel Airgsta tion =a. ne meee YW D=LIO Si Nar yas eee June 1, 1923 20.0 0.0 
DolphineiNow4 Os.) sae YD=llL0SeeNavys oa ee ee June 1, 1923 14.0 2b 
HU WEROSECrANS Syste. nae ee A-109', 29. WArnry. ras .ce ee Dec. 1, 1922 10) 13.8 
Hast Santa Fe Wharf............) A-1¥0 0 Armyene es ee Dec. 1, 1922 1.2 22.2 


YD-1101—Limnoria appeared on the first block and a minute shipworm 
puncture on block 3, removed March 2. The number of shipworm punctures 
increased slightly, but no appreciable growth occurred until about May 1 
Block 7, removed May 1, contained 16 specimens of Teredo diegensis, the 
longest about 1 inch. Block 9, removed June 1, showed about 15 embryonic 
shipworms per square inch and 18 animals, some of them 21% inches long. 
While the growth of the animals was rather slow, the longest on January 1, 
1924, being over 4 inches, the number increased rapidly and by October the 
blocks were thoroughly honeycombed. The Limnoria attack was very heavy. 
The associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula), 
Anomia and a few specimens of Pecten, sponges and Amphipoda. The last 
block reported was removed January 16, 1924, and at this time specimens 
of Teredo diegensis contained larvae. 

YD-1102—The first shipworm punctures in the blocks were found in 
block 8, removed March 19. The date of important attack and the beginning 
of growth appeared to be about one month earlier than at YD-1101. The 
largest specimen of Teredo diegensis found was nearly 5 inches in length. 
The Limnoria attack was quite heavy. One specimen of Bankia setacea was 
found in the block removed December 15. 

YD-1103—The first specimen of Limnoria did not appear until block 7, 
removed May 2, and the first of Teredo diegensis, in block 8, removed May i 


375 


DIEGO BAY 


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376 HARBOR REPORTS 


15. The violence of the attack by both Teredo and Limnoria increased 
rapidly and on October 1 was fully as heavy as at YD-1101 and 1102. One 
specimen of Bankia setacea 4 inches long was found in block 16, removed 
September 17, and the Teredo in block 11, removed July 2, contained many 
larvae. Associated organisms were Bryozoa (Lepralia), Anomia, many 
Amphipoda and polycheate worms. The last block reported was removed 
January 16, 1924. This block was thoroughly honeycombed by Teredo and 
its surface was destroyed by Limnoria action. 


YD-1104—The first shipworm puncture was found on block 5, removed 
April 17, and the first specimen of Limnoria two weeks later, but the real 
attack did not appear until block 9, removed June 15. The attack of 
Limnoria and Teredo on this board was not so heavy as on the three preced- 
ing boards. The first specimen of Bankia setacea 31% inches long was found 
in block 14, removed September 4. Associated organisms were Algae, 
Pecten, Amphipoda and Bryozoa of a number of species. The last block 
reported was removed January 3, 1924. 


YD-1105—tThe first specimen of Limnoria appeared on block 1, removed 
February 20, and the first shipworm punctures on block 2, removed March 1, 
but no appreciable growth took place until in block 8, removed June 1. Block 
9, two weeks later, showed a very heavy attack by Limnoria and Teredo 
diegensis, many of the Teredo specimens being 1% inches long and contain- 
ing larvae. The number of specimens of Teredo found in the later blocks 
was much smaller than on the boards previously listed, but the Limnoria 
attack was heavier. Associated organisms were fewer than on the preced- 
ing boards. The last block reported was removed January 16, 1924. 


YD-1106 and 1107—These two boards were placed at the depths shown 
above. A few specimens of Limnoria and about 30 of Teredo diegensis 
larvae appeared on the second block from YD-1106 and a slightly smaller 
number of both on the corresponding block of YD-1107. There was little 
variation in the attack on the two boards up to September 15, but the asso- 
ciated organisms were more plentiful on YD-1106. Blocks removed on 
November 1 showed a few specimens of Limnoria and 15 of Teredo, the 
longest 75 mm. in 1106, and only a few punctures in 1107, which was cov- 
ered with oil scum. All later blocks from YD-1107 were covered with oil, 
while 1106 showed Limnoria and 50 or more burrows of Teredo diegensis 
up to 90 mm. in length. The last block inspected was removed January 18, 
1924. 


YD-1108—This board was placed above YD-1103. Limnoria attack was 
light until September 4, when the first specimen of Teredo appeared, and by 
the time of the removal of the block on January 16, 1924, the Limnoria at- 
tack had become heavy and specimens of Teredo diegensis had become quite 
numerous, reaching a length of 120 mm. Some of them were carrying 
larvae. 


A-109—The first shipworm de eetne appeared in block 8, removed 
January 15, 1923, and the first Limnoria one month later, but the real 
attack and the first appreciable growth of Teredo diegensis, as well as the 
first appearance of Bankia setacea occurred on block 12, removed June 1. 
The intensity of attack increased through the summer, but was not so heavy 
as at the other boards, except YD-1105. Very few specimens of Bankia 


were found. Associated organisms were Bryozoa of many species, Anomia, — 


SAN DIEGO BAY 377 


Amphipoda and Algae. The last block reported, removed January 16, con- 
tained Teredo diegensis up to 5 inches in length and Bankia setacea 8 
inches long. 


A-110—The first shipworm punctures appeared in block 2, removed Jan- 
uary 2, 1923, and the number had increased to 70 in block 7, removed 
March 16, though the longest Teredo diegensis was only 1/16 inch long. 
This length had increased to 144 inches one month later, while by May 15. 
attack was heavy and the length had about doubled. The first Bankia 
setacea appeared in block 16, removed July 30, and by September 15 the 
blocks were thoroughly honeycombed, principally by Teredo diegensis, 
though the Limnoria attack was also very heavy. Associated organisms 
were Balanus, Bryozoa of several species, Anomia and hydroids. The last 
block reported, removed January 15, 1924, contained many specimens of 
Teredo diegensis, some of them carrying larvae. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—Creosoted piles used in structures of sufficient 
age to give useful information as to average life have most of them been 
encased in concrete and there is not sufficient information available from 
which to draw conclusions as to the life of unprotected creosoted piles in 
this port. The mooring dolphins recently constructed by the Navy were 
built strictly in accordance with the recommendations of the San Francisco 
Bay Marine Piling Committee and are not armored. 


Armor—Scupper nailing. The Spreckels Company and the Atchison, 
Topeka and Sante Fe Railroad both used this method with great success. 
A description of the structures in which it was used will be found in 
Chapter VI, page 98. 


Concrete Jackets—The temporary pier at the Naval Air Station was 
built of unprotected timber in May, 1918. The Limnoria attack was heavy 
during the first year and the piles were encased in concrete jackets 3 inches 
thick. When this pier was removed in June, 1921, to make way for a per- 
manent structure, the jackets and piles were all found to be in good condi- 
tion. 

The “Bunker Wharf” of the Spreckels Company was constructed in 1887 
on creosoted piles and between the years 1889-1893 these piles were encased 
in concrete jackets made with 1 to 1 or 1 to 1% mortar, depending on the 
depth of water. The forms were made in halves, placed and bolted by divers. 
No bearing piles have been replaced in 35 years, though some of the jackets 
have required repair. It has been found at points where the concrete has 
broken away from the pile that a sandy, gritty surface remained, which 
seemed to give at least temporary protection. 

The San Diego Municipal Wharf is built on concrete cylinders molded in 
place over three pile clusters. These supports, built in 1914, appear to be in 
good condition, but the floor beams and girders at a number of points show 
discoloration and signs of spalling over the reinforcing rods, 


Substitutes for Timber 

Concrete—The Army Mine Wharf was constructed in 1910 on concrete 
bearing piles which were reported to be in good condition in 1922. 

The pier at the Naval Air Station was constructed in 1920 on 140 18-inch 
by 18-inch and 232 14-inch by 14-inch square precast piles. The 18-inch 


378 HARBOR REPORTS 


piles were reinforced with four 1-inch and the 14-inch with four %-inch 
deformed square bars hooped with 34-inch diameter bars with 14 inches 
cover. The aggregates were hard granites from the bed of the Otay River 
and medium sand. The cement was Victor Brand, the water fresh from the 
city supply; the steel was free from rust and the mixture was 1:11:38, of a 
slightly quaking consistency. Part of these piles were jetted and part 
driven with a No. 1 Vulcan hammer. A concrete sheet pile sea wall was 
built at the same time and with the same methods and materials. This 
structure, at the age of two years, showed no deterioration. 

The Naval Fuel Depot is built on concrete filled steel cylinders made of 
14-inch steel plate supported by pile clusters cut off at low water. The deck 
and superstructure are steel. The plates in the cylinders show very little 
corrosion and the superstructure is in good condition though it has not been 
repainted since its construction in 1909. 

There is a considerable amount of floating oil around this structure which 
has preserved the steel below high water and in the opinion of the Public 
Works Officer the thick accumulation of coal dust above the water level has 
acted as a protective coating preventing rust. 


Cast Iron—The Quarantine Station Wharf is built on cast iron columns 
supported on unprotected wooden piles cut off at the mud line. It was built 
in 1888 or 1889 and its history is reported by the U. S. Engineer Office as 
follows: 


“Captain Watkins, who has been at the station since 1900, reports that 
the cast iron piling is brittle and that a number of them have broken under 
the impact of a vessel striking the wharf. (We viewed one that had been 
broken short off by the stem of a small motor dory.) Another objection 
is that in some cases the current has scoured the sand below the bottom 
of the bell, leaving the stub wooden pile open to attack of borers. Several 
piles have been found suspended from the dock due to this. A chird 
objection is lack of rigidity due to difficulty of getting a snug fit ox the 
bell over the supporting wooden pile. (Diagonal rod interbracing originally 
installed to stiffen the structure was removed because of the kelp it col- 
lected.) Repair of broken piling has been fairly simple by inserting a pipe, 
putting a clamp over the break and filling with concrete. Captain Watkins 
is of the opinion that the piling should be filled with concrete when built, 
strengthening against the apparent crystallization and securing a snugger 
fit upon the supporting pile. 

“To offset the objections is the long life, as the piles show surprisingly 
little corrosion. Contractors are at work now putting on an entire new 
superstructure of timbers and decking on the long approach to the main 
wharf, supported by the original hollow cast iron piling.” 


Conclusions 


It appears that so far as indicated by test blocks the attack by Bankia 
setacea is negligible; that Limnoria attack is heavy throughout the harbor 
though perhaps a little heavier toward the southern end than farther north; 
that while larvae of Teredo diegensis are deposited throughout a greater 
part of the year serious attack does not occur before the month of April. The 
close of the season of activity has not yet been determined. 

The results obtained with concrete jackets on creosoted piles with the ex- 
ceptional character of maintenance these structures have received, have been 
very satisfactory. 

The nail armor has been very effective and its record should encourage 
the use of this method where labor costs are not prohibitive or with machine 
methods of driving the nails which may be developed. 


LOS ANGELES HARBOR 379 


The long life of the cast iron wharf at the Quarantine Station, in spite of 
the evident defects in design is very significant. 


gee LOS ANGELES HARBOR 
Description : 


A portion of San Pedro Bay (Fig. 135), which was naturally protected 
from northerly and westerly winds, has been converted into a safe harbor 
at all times by the construction of a breakwater about 2.11 miles in length 
and by a large amount of dredging. The outer harbor has a general depth 
of 35 feet and the channels, which are from 200 to 500 feet wide, have a 
depth of 30 feet, except for a portion of the channel in the Inner Harbor, 
which has been dredged to 20 feet. 

Tidal currents exist in the channels of sufficient strength to facilitate the 
distribution of borers. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—The present harbor is comparatively new, but the struc- 
tures in San Pedro Bay and vicinity have shown the presence of Limnoria 
and the molluscan borers as far back as there are records. Both types of 
borers are very destructive, Limnoria being perhaps the worse of the two. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards have been maintained 
as shown below: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) ~ 
Municipal Pier, Long Beach..... A= OGin epee | ALON cen ec 4 een ute ave aes Oct. 31, 1922 at res: 6.0 
Bertie Olen Awe ot ee, N= (Oe MATIN ce ot. Sates sale cocks Nov. 13, 1922 1.66 18.0 
ISvrnAe ROLE. le MA eee rr INAS 3 Se pata a ee & es Cee eee Noy. 15,1922 1.8 25.0 


A-106—The first shipworm punctures appeared on block 1, removed No- 
vember 15, and the first Limnoria on block 38, removed December 16; in 
block 7, removed February 16, the specimens of Teredo diegensis had 
reached a maximum length of % inch. Block 9, removed March 16, con- 
tained a few specimens of Teredo diegensis up to 1 inch in length, containing 
larvee, but this length and the number of animals found did not appreciably 
increase until about May 1, when a more rapid growth commenced. The 
number of specimens of Teredo found in any block never exceeded about 70 
and the length was not more than about 41% inches. The Limnoria attack 
was very heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Pecten, 
Crepidula and Ostrea. 


A-107—No life appeared on these blocks until block 3, removed January 
16, 1923, when a few shipworm punctures were found. A few specimens of 
Limnoria appeared on later blocks but there was no increase in the num- 
ber or size of those of Teredo diegensis until April 2, when one of them had 
reached a length of 34 inch and when a more rapid growth started. Block 
11, removed May 16, showed one specimen of Bankia setacea and the next 
block, two weeks later, contained a few of Teredo diegensis 2 inches long 
and one of Bankia setacea over 6 inches long. The number and size of 
both species increased rapidly in June and those of Teredo continued to 
increase until there were 50 to 75 per square inch up to 4 inches in length, 


380 HARBOR REPORTS 


with a few specimens of Bankia up to 10 inches long. Limnoria attack 
was light. Associated organisms were Bryozoa (Crisia and Microporella). 
The last block removed, January 16, 1924, was thoroughly riddled by Teredo 
diegensis and contained a few specimens of Bankia setacea. 


A-108—The first shipworm punctures appeared in block 3, removed Jan- 
uary 2, and the first Limnoria, February 17. The shipworms, Teredo 
diegensis, reached a length of °% inch in block 8, removed March 16, and 
one month later a specimen 4 inches long was found, but the number did 
not appreciably increase until the last half of May; by September 15 the 
blocks were thoroughly honeycombed, some of the Teredo specimens being 
about 8 inches long. Limnoria attack was negligible. Associated organ- 
isms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Crisia) and Anomia. The last block in- 
spected was removed January 16, 1924. 

Some time previous to 1909 piles supporting several structures were en- 
cased in concrete jackets as a protection against borers. In 1922 a number 
of these piles were removed in the course of the construction of the new 
harbor and the concrete was found to have been attacked by rock borers. 
There is no exact record as to the date of placing the jackets or the method 
of construction except that wooden forms left in place were used. The 
concrete was friable and contained few coarse aggregates and some speci- 
mens showed the characteristic pink color caused by the disintegration of 
the cement. The best specimen tested has a crushing strength of 1,726 
pounds per square inch. This concrete was undoubtedly far from being of 
the best quality and it is still questionable whether these animals could 
destroy first class concrete, though they will undoubtedly assist the chemi- 
cal disintegration when that cause of failure becomes active. 

Roughly, about 50 per cent of the jackets examined were rather heavily 
attacked and few of them showed no attack. In one specimen examined 
there were about 8 borers per square foot and heavier attacks are reported. 

The principal boring species was the Pholadidea penita (Conrad). Speci- 
mens of Petricola carditoides (Conrad) were also found, but it is thought 
that this species did not bore but lived only in previously existing holes. 


Methods of Protection 

Practically all wooden harbor structures are protected by creosoting or 
by concrete jackets, but service records available do not cover a sufficiently 
long period to be of value. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Reinforced Concrete—The following statement furnished by the Harbor — 
Department of the City of Los Angeles shows the concrete structures in the 
harbor. It will be noticed that none of them are yet old enough so that 
deterioration could be expected. 


BERTHS 56-60 


Length of Wharf—2,920 ft. 
Reinforced Concrete Piles. 


Materials. . 
Aggregate—Sand and gravel from San Gabriel and Puente 
Largo, Wash. ; 


Cement—Colton, Riverside and Golden Gate. 
Gaging water—Fresh. 
Reinforced with spiral hooping and %-in. bars running longitudi- 
nally—1.38 per cent to 1.7 per cent steel. 


LOS ANGELES HARBOR 381 


i923 


i 
o 
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Ea 
Eee 
n Yes) 
gars on 
om @ r4 
LOE 
om ao s 
Z.a4 fy 
Ow 
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2) a 
: ke 


382 HARBOR REPORTS 


Mix—Originally 1:114:3 and later changed to 1:1%:3%. Cover 
over reinforcing—2 in. Piles painted with one coat of “TIron- 
ite.” Precast. 


Built in 1913. 
Condition satisfactory—could find no deterioration. 


Date last inspected—June, 1923. 


BERTHS 187-188: 


Length of Wharf—1,159 ft. 
Reinforced Concrete Piles. 
Materials. 
Aggregate—Sand from San Gabriel, Wésh. 
Cement—Victor. 


Gaging water—Fresh. 
20-in. pile with 12-in. hollow core. 
18-in. pile with 10-in. hollow core. 
Spiral reinforcement and 8 %-in. longitudinal bars—1.2 per cent to 
1.4 per cent steel. 
Mix—About 1:2%. 
Cover over reinforcing, 214 in. 
Built in 1920, made of Gunite 4 in. thick blown around a paper core, 


12 in. diam. 
No deterioration as yet can be noted. 


BERTHS 189-191: 
Length of wharf—1,176 ft. 
Reinforced concrete piles. 
Materials: 
Aggregate—Sand and gravel from San Gabriel River bed. 
Cement— Victor. 


Gaging water—Fresh. 

18-in. square piles—corners. chamfered 3 in. 

Steel wires for hooping and ten 1-in. down to eight %-in. bars, 
depending on length of pile for horizontal reinforcement— 
1.1 per cent to 2.5 per cent reinforcement. 

Mix—1:1.8:3. 

Cover over reinforcement, 3 in. 

Built and driven in 1922. 


BERTH 2382: 
Length of wharf—1,120 ft. 

Reinforced concrete piles. 

Materials: 

Aggregate—Sand from San Gabriel River bed. 
Cement—Victor. 

Gaging water—Fresh. 

17 in. round piles, from eight %-in. diam. to six %-in. diam. 
longitudinal rods, depending on length of pile—0.8 per cent 
to 1.1 per cent reinforcement. 

Mix—1 :2:6. 

Cover over reinforcement, 21% in. 

Made of Gunite. 


Built and driven in 1922. 


It was found that the hollow piles used in Berths 187-188 were more 
expensive than solid piles and therefore this method was abandoned and 
the piles made solid. The cost of the gunite pile is said to have been 
approximately $2.75 per linear foot as compared to about $3.25 for poured 
piles. 


Aside from the wharf structures, we have a reinforced gunite landing 
barge, 20 ft. by 100 ft. by 6 ft. deep. 


Materials: 
Aggregate—San Gabriel River sand. 


j 


Fie. 136 


N ie 
~~ 


U (7) MALLAR et or “ 
AVON Of 27, 
(BF SACRAMENTO ) PITTSBURG 


Cte ay 


MARIN 


Lp Te. Ze 
Lp 3 o 
9 \ ae a) 
SAN RAFAEL 
COD Wale ee 
() 
aN “GREEN BRA 
MT TAMALPAIS ss 


He 
MT OIABLO 


f ora ‘orn \ 


SAN FRANCISCO BAY 
ANO 


TRIBUTARIES 


Scale 
r] a é é 10 MILES 


drawn For 
Sen Francisco Bay Marine Piling Survey 
december 1920 


] QUMBARTON 


Sy /}f B 


Tea) 
PN! Ne NI 


Ms be he 8 
WOU Peer dex 
as 
#2 


SAN FRANCISCO BAY 383 


~ Cement—Bear brand. 
Gaging water—Fresh. 
%-in. steel twisted rope, Clinton electric welded fabric and tri- 
angular mesh. 
Four-in. walls, bottom and deck—about 2% per cent steel. 
Mix—About 1:2%. 
Cover over reinforcement, 1% in. 
Built in 1918. 
Present condition: 
No recent inspection made. Barge has not settled any in the water 
and from superficial examination, no deterioration was found. 

In a wharf now under construction a new method of protection is being 
used and the service record of this structure will be watched with interest. 
These piles are 16 inches square and from 30 to 52 feet long, with longi- 
tudinal reinforcing % to 4 inches with spiral hooping and a small circular 
hole cast in the center of the pile to aid in impregnation. The mixture 
principally used was 1:3:3, though a mixture of 1:314:31% as well as 
others are being tried. The concrete is mixed rather dry and carefully 
tamped in the forms. 

After the piles are seasoned they are placed in a tank 8 feet square and 
60 feet long, filled with cold asphalt of 40-50 penetration. The temperature 
is raised to about 450° Fahr. and then allowed to fall to 212° Fahr., at 
which time the piles are removed. The whole operation requires 24 hours. 
On account of the uneven expansion of the concrete and steel, cracks are 
formed, which aid in the impregnation. This cracking has been said by 
some not to be harmful to the strength of the piles, since the asphalt firmly 
cements the cracks. Confirmation of this hypothesis awaits further test 
and observation. 

By this method it has been possible to thoroughly impregnate the piles 
and thus it is thought that the concrete will be protected from disintegration 
and the reinforcing metal from corrosion. Recent experiments on this type 
of pile are claimed to have produced full size pile samples free from cracks 
and fully impregnated with asphalt. 


Conclusions 


All structures in the harbor are subject to heavy attack from marine 
borers and piles should therefore be protected in all except very temporary 
structures. 

While Teredo diegensis seems to breed slowly through the winter a 
heavy attack need not be expected before May 1, and since Bankia setacea 
appears later this may be considered the end of the period of shipworm 
inactivity. Limnoria is active, but will not alone destroy a structure in one 
season. 

The concrete structures are too new to furnish information as to prob- 
able life, but the varied methods of construction used and the complete 
records available justify careful study of the service given. 


SAN FRANCISCO BAY 


The greater part of the information contained in this report on San 
Francisco Bay is abstracted from the three reports of the San Francisco 
Bay Marine Piling Committee, published in 1921, 1922 and 1928. 


Description of San Francisco Bay and Tributaries 
San Francisco Bay (Fig. 136) proper extends from its junction with San 


384 HARBOR REPORTS 


Pablo Bay between Points San Pedro and San Pablo southeastwardly about 
40 miles. The entrance to the Bay from the Pacific, the Golden Gate, is 
about 10 miles south of; Point San Pedro. The Bay is about 12 miles wide 
at its widest point and has an area of about 228 square miles. 

The depth in the Golden Gate is about 300 feet and the average current 
on flood is 3.3 knots and 3.4 knots on ebb with a maximum ebb current 
observed of 6.5 knots. 

The northern extension of San Francisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, is about 
10 miles long by 8 miles wide and has an area of about 112 square miles 
with a channel depth of about 30 feet, and tidal current averaging slightly 
less than 2 knots on both ebb and flood. 

Carquinez Strait enters San Pablo Bay from the east and connects that 
body of water with Suisun Bay. It is from 44 to 34% miles wide and 6 miles 
long, with a depth of from 30 to 60 feet and has tidal currents averaging 
from over 2 knots on flood to over 3 knots on ebb, with 6 knots or more 
on ebb tide coincident with floods in the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. 

Suisun Bay is a generally shallow body of water, which is really the delta 
of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. The channels are narrow and 
winding and are used only by light draft vessels. 

The watershed tributary to San Francisco Bay is about 6,200 square 
miles, of which 5,800 is in the watersheds of the San Joaquin and Sacra- 
mento Rivers, whose waters enter through Suisun Bay, Carquinez Straits 
and San Pablo Bay. 

The general salinity conditions in San Francisco Bay proper do not 
vary sufficiently from the normal to greatly affect marine life, but in San 
Pablo Bay the effect of the discharge of the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
has a distinct influence on salinity (Fig. 137), while in Carquinez Strait 
the river discharge lowers the salinity to zero at times (Fig. 138). 

Temperatures at Tiburon have an annual average of 55.1° Fahr., with a 
January average of 47.5° Fahr. and a July average of 62.6° Fahr. At Goat 
Island the corresponding figures are 54.4° Fahr., 48.1° Fahr. and 59.5° Fahr., 
respectively. In the Mare Island Channel July and August, 1920, averaged 
about 62° Fahr., with a maximum of 64° Fahr. at the bottom and 67° Fahr. 
at the surface, and there was no considerable variation from these figures 
until October. January, 1921, showed a minimum of 39° Fahr. at the bottom 
and 42° Fahr. at the surface, with an average of about 45° Fahr., while 
June, 1921, showed its highest surface temperature to be 72° Fahr. and 66° 
Fahr. at the bottom, with an average of about 65° Fahr., while the variation 
‘in Carquinez Straits is from a minimum of about 40° Fahr. to a maximum 
of 70° Fahr. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Structures in San Francisco Bay have been subject to 
attack by marine borers ever since records have been kept, though tradi- 
tion says that the shipworm did not become a menace until the great 
shipping increase caused by the gold rush in 1849. There is a pile section 
in the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, collected in San Fran- 
cisco Bay in 1867, which was heavily attacked by Bankia setacea. So 
far as the biologists know the only borers existing in the Bay prior to 1914 
were the Bankia setacea and Limnoria lignorum. The greatest destruction 
occurred near the Golden Gate and on parts of the San Francisco water- 
front, where an unprotected pile might not last over a few months, while 


SAN FRANCISCO BAY 385 


on the Oakland waterfront eighteen months to three years’ life might be 
expected. In San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Straits, Suisun Bay and the 
Sacramento River, unprotected structures had been standing 30 or 40 years 
without attack until 1917, but since that time every waterfront structure 
of untreated timber between San Pablo Bay and Antioch on the Sacramento 
River has been attacked by Teredo navalis and most of the structures as 
far as Suisun Bay have been destroyed. 

The attack of the Teredo navalis has also extended to the south end 
of the Bay, but the damage has been less than in the north, because there 
are fewer structures to serve as breeding grounds. The attack on the 
creosoted piles of the Dumbarton bridge has been fairly destructive, but 
was due principally to Limnoria following abrasion of the creosoted timber. 

Teredo navalis is the most widely distributed species in the Bay, and 
consequently the most destructive, while Bankia setacea is less widely dis- 
tributed, but just as destructive where it exists. Teredo diegensis is of 
less economic importance, as it has been identified in only one locality. 

The two crustacean borers found in San Francisco are the Limnoria 
lignorum and a species of Sphaeroma. The former is found in all parts of 
San Francisco Bay proper and is especially destructive on the San Francisco 
and Oakland waterfronts, while Sphaeroma is found, not only in San Fran- 
cisco Bay itself, but also in its tributaries as far as Antioch on the Sacra- 
mento River. Sphaeroma has so far shown itself of little economic im- 
portance. 


Committee Investigations—The San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Com- 
mittee has placed and maintained a large number of test boards and in 
addition to determining salinities and temperatures has made a number 
of laboratory experiments to find previously unknown facts regarding the 
life history, habits and requirements of Teredo navalis, the most im- 
portant species of borer with which they had to contend. The details of 
this work will be found in the reports of the Committee. 

The purely scientific studies of the Committee have produced the follow- 
ing results: 

Evidence drawn from studies of a large number of shells and pallets 
shows that the range of individual and environmental variations in Teredo 
navalis is so great that all forms of Teredo of economic importance in San 
Francisco Bay, exclusive of Teredo diegensis, may properly be included 
in this species. , 

Evidence that Teredo navalis maintains its normal activity in salinities 
as low as 9 parts per 1,000; that below 7 parts per 1,000 the proportion 
of active individuals decreases until at a salinity of 3 parts per 1,000 
none are active; that the average lethal salinity for this species is 5 parts 
per 1,000; that 90 per cent of the individuals will be killed by a salinity 
below 4 parts per 1,000 extending over a period of 33 days, but that if a 
rise in salinity occurs even for a relatively short period, the animal can 
renew its supply of salt water and continue to live; that with 33 days 
of salinity below 4 parts per 1,000, 10 per cent of the animals are still alive 
and may continue to spread the attack if the salinity increases to a suf- 
ficient amount before their death. 

Evidence that during its passage through the digestive tract of Teredo 
about 80 per cent of the cellulose and from 15 per cent to 56 per cent 
of the hemicellulose is removed from the wood; that the carbohydrates 
which disappear are probably used as food by the Teredo; that the digestion 


386 HARBOR REPORTS 


of wood produces optimum conditions for the absorption of toxic substances 
contained in it and that therefore impregnation with a toxic substance hav- 
ing the other necessary qualities will provide efficient protection for the 
timber. 


Methods of Protection 


The reports of the San Francisco Committee contain tabulations of the 
service records of wooden piles with various methods of protection, of 
creosoted structures and structures built on substitutes for timber. Over 
250 structures are listed. The Committee draws the following conclusions 
from a study of the records so far as they relate to timber construction: 


“1, Marine borers are very active in San Francisco Bay and con- 
nected waters, and in places where their attack is severe will destroy 
untreated piling in as short a time as six to eight months. In other places 
the untreated piling may last from two to four years. 


“2 The information secured indicates that it is reasonable to expect 
a life of five to eight years from paint and batten protections in sheltered 
waters, if the work is well done. If it is not well done, or if the covering 
is damaged by careless handling, or if unprotected wood is exposed by 
mud scour, this range of life cannot be expected. 


“3 The data in hand indicates that it is fair to,expect creosoted douglas 
fir piling in San Francisco Bay to give a life of 15 to 20 years under present 
conditions and practice. Certain piles are of authentic record from the 
Oakland Long Wharf, which were sound when removed after a service of 
29 years. Poor treatment, or damage to creosoted piling by careless 
handling, rafting, storage or construction, will materially reduce the life 
which might otherwise be rendered by such piling. 


“A. Most of the attack on creosoted piling by marine borers, which the 
Committee has observed throughout this survey, appears to have begun 
in spots where untreated wood has been exposed by damage in handling 
the piles or placing the superstructure. It is urgently recommended that 
improvements be made in the methods of handling creosoted piles and 
building structures upon them, so that damage to the surface of the piles 
may be reduced to a minimum. Gratifying improvement has taken place 
during the current year. 

“5 Precast reinforced concrete piles and pile casings have not been 
in use in San Francisco Bay a sufficient length of time to determine their 
ultimate life. A detailed examination of structures which have been in 
service for more than ten years shows no evidence of deterioration below 
high water line, and they seem capable of a long further life. The length 
of life to be expected from this type of construction is largely dependent 
upon the quality of materials and workmanship and the skill and care 
with which they are employed, and any laxity in these particulars will 
materially shorten the length of service which may be secured. 


“6, Reinforced concrete cylinders cast in open caissons have been in 
use since 1910. Although the average life of many earlier cylinders has 
been considerably shortened by construction defects, these cylinders with 
minor repairs still give promise of a long period of service. Similar cylin- 
ders designed and constructed in accordance with best modern concrete 
practice should constitute a type of construction only excelled for longevity 
by solid fill or mass concrete. 

“7 Cast in place concrete pile jackets may be expected to give satisfactory 
results if properly constructed of suitable materials and if proper regard is 
given toward exclusion of sea water from forms. The difficulties of this type 
of construction, however. are of such nature that the probability of securing 
a maximum length of life is less than in the case of precast concrete piles 
or pile casings. 

“8. Copper sheathed piles have given very satisfactory service in locations 
where damage from abrasion and theft can be minimized. Such piles care- 
fully prepared and handled fall into the class of best surface protections, 


387 


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388 HARBOR REPORTS 


when used under the conditions indicated, but are easily damaged by either 
abrasion or theft. 


“9. The selection of a type of piling or pile protection for a given structure 
must be made upon the basis of cost and permanence of the materials under 
consideration, the character of the structure and the probable need for 
future alterations to meet the changing requirements of commerce. When 
a comparatively short increase over the life of untreated wooden piling is 
sufficient, the surface protections will often be found economical in waters 
not exposed to severe storm action; if a moderately long physical life 
approximating the average economic life of marine structures in this harbor 
is desired, a good creosote treatment will provide it at the lowest annual 
cost, so far as present knowledge goes; if conditions warrant building for 
the greatest permanence, with less regard for first cost, concrete construc- 
tion has shown a high value in this harbor. For the protection from further 
damage of wooden piles already in place and showing attack by borers, not 
yet severe enough to require condemnation, the concrete casing, precast or 
poured in place, is the only means of salvage so far found by the Committee.” 

Substitutes for Timber 

Wrought Iron and Steei—There are five piers reported on cast iron 
piles and two on wrought iron, containing 505 cast iron and 179 wrought 
iron piles, both cylindrical and both filled with concrete. The cast iron 
piles were placed between 1870 and 1903 and the wrought iron in 1886 and 
1897. Sixty-five piles out of 145 have been replaced_on account of breakage 
in the pier on Alcatraz Island since 1870 and the bracing has been renewed 
five times. In the other cast iron pile piers only five replacements have been 
made and no wrought iron piles have requird renewal. 

A pier on cast iron cylinders 4 feet in diameter and 2 inches thick filled 
with concrete was built at the Tiburon coaling plant of the Navy in 1906-08 
and is reported to be in excellent condition with no maintenance expendi- 
tures except painting above water level. 


Concrete—Two types of concrete construction are in general use. In 
one the deck of the pier is carried on cylinders sunk to a satisfactory 
foundation. They are from 5 to 7 feet in diameter and were constructed 
inside of steel caissons which were unwatered before pouring the concrete. 
The reinforcement consists of %-inch square bars spirally hooped with 
No. 0 wire. The concrete mixture was one part cement to six parts ag- 
gregate and the reinforcing had a 83-inch cover. 

There are 12 piers, containing 5,198 cylinders, built between 1909 and 
1916, and 457 of the cylinders had required repair up to December, 1922, 
but none of them had failed. 

The other type of concrete construction makes use of reinforced con- 
crete piles which are generally from 16 to 20 inches square, made with 
a 1:5 mixture and reinforced by from four °4-inch bars to six 1-inch bars, 
depending on the length of the piles. No. 3 wire is used for spiral hoop- 
ing and there is 2-inch cover over the reinforcing. 

There have been 19 structures containing 8,637 piles built between 1911 
and 1922 and none of the piles have as yet required replacement, but many 
of those over 10 years old and some of less age show rust streaks or cracks 
over the reinforcing above high water. For example, three structures re- 
ported in the second report (1922) have the following record: In one built 
in 1911, 30 per cent show rust streaks or cracks, in another built in 1912, 
25 per cent, and in one built in 1915, 10 per cent. 

There is a large amount of sea wall on the San Francisco waterfront 
generally built of concrete blocks cast and seasoned in air. It is thought 
to be in good condition. 


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389 


390 HARBOR REPORTS 


At the Mare Island Navy Yard there is a concrete quay wall cast in 
place and built at various times since 1892. The salinity at this point is 
generally low and there has been little if any visible deterioration. 

The cement used had an average composition of 


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Sulphur: trioxide. .i.'s ssc: = eee pete See 1.2 
Loss on ignition (moist alkalies)... 2. G.9 Joe eee yd | 


Specimens were cut from the walls constructed at various dates, the 
large stones of the aggregate removed and the remainder of the specimen 
analyzed, with the results as shown below, which are quoted from a report 
by the Public Works Officer of the Yard: 


Present Present Present 
Date Wall Present per cent per cent per cent Present 
Concrete Placed No. per cent Calcium Magnesium Sulphur per cent 

Silica Oxide Oxide Trioxide Salt 
1 Oey ar iat veca.< MSO N 64.4 12.6 2.4 .80 1.30 
L803 Rae a cee s G 76.9 8.4 2-0 .62 ag Wi 
LS Of tee ae ge8 cee reels D 74.0 Dao 380 .80 -12 
1S OS Serta ee ee eee B 59.9 8.9 if .88 .91 
L898. ees). Gees ett L 67.8 11.6 1.9 .76 .58 
LS OS ie oe en C 57.6 18.4 2.1 .70 .16 
TSO TE ees eee. O 73.4 4.3 6.3 35 .58 
TS 90 ie Paar BS cr. ete cane E 65.1 12.3 2.8 74 .62 
1890 Tee oe Aes M 62.8 thas 2.4 .00 .00 
18007 eee ee ee K 61.8 20.6 ea 1.20 1.50 
L902) eee, case eee F (on 7.8 2. 1 39 54 
L903. Saete eke eee H 72.9 8.8 Diets 1.20 .41 
1900 ee een, eee I 67.8 13.8 1.9 1.30 .74 
LOZ. eens oe ees Q 66.0 ieO 2.28 61 173 
dD RS Wea hy ls Se Sa eR Eka P-1 fina: 19.9 Lis .38 1.20 
LOL Oe ee. omen P-2 49.3 18.5 2628 1.60 1.80 


“These results are irregular, but, when averaged by years, show a gradual 
leaching out of lime in approximate proportion to the age of the sample. 


Date placed...... 1898 1897 1898 1899 1902 1903, 1909) 31912551906 
Present per cent 
Ot *iiniceeacaee 8.4 5.5 12.9 9.6 °7.8 “Sear ie See 


“This lime content is essential to the lime-silica combination, which is the 
strength of the cement.” 


A further quotation from this report is as follows: 


“No other methods of safeguarding concrete from salt water and 
abrasion have been used at this yard than the use of dense mixtures, care- 
fully placed and tamped, and an outer protection of timber. 

“Deterioration of concrete structures is very slight at the Mare Island 
Navy Yard owing to the narrow range of temperature, low salinity of 
the water, and absence of ice or frost. In present quay wall construction 
Dr. Abram’s methods of proportioning concrete are being followed with 
great care and the amount of water used reduced as far as practicable.” 


Committee Tests 


The San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee has installed a large 
number of test pieces at several different localities in the Bay area. These 
test pieces have been prepared for the purpose of experimenting with 


SAN FRANCISCO BAY 391 


creosote either weakened by the subtraction or strengthened by the addi- 
tion of the fractions of creosote. 

Sixteen creosote combinations prepared by the Committee are under test 
as well as four sets of specimens prepared by the Forest Products Labora- 
tory. These latter are impregnated with— 


Barren oil. 

Barren oil with 5 per cent B. Naphthol. 

Barren oil 45 per cent., naphthalene 55 per cent. 
Barren oil mercury treated. 


Specimens are also under test of the following proprietary compounds: 


Aczol. 

Antimony trichloride in benzol. 
Antimony trichloride in creosote. 
Elaterite paints. 

Moran preservative. 

Paraffin. 

Paraffin and arsenious iodide. 
Paraffin and copper iodide. 
Williams & Francois oil. 


To the date of the last report the specimen treated with antimony 
trichloride and the one with Elaterite are the only ones of this series to be 
attacked after 10 months’ immersion. It may be said in this connection 
that the attack of all the borers seemed much less intense in 1922 than 
previously. 


Similar tests are being made with the following timbers: 


Alder Azobe 
Greenheart Tallow wood 
Toledowood (Manbarklak) | Turpentine wood. 


Chemical studies have been carried on upon the 
“Extent and Character of Losses of Creosote Exposed Under 
Varying Conditions.” 
“Effect of Degree of Penetration on the Composition of 
Creosote.” 
“Observations of Test Pieces Treated with Inorganic In- 
hibitants.”’ 
“Effect of Chlorine Concentrations on Teredo.” 
“Effect of Various Salts in Protecting Wood.” 
The results of these studies, which are now being prepared for publica- 
tion, will add materially to the knowledge of the protection of timber from 
marine borers. 


Conclusions 

Unprotected wooden structures in many portions of the San Francisco 
Bay area may not be expected to have a useful life exceeding one year, 
while in the Carquinez Straits territory life may be longer in years of 
heavy rainfall and consequent low salinity. 

Coated piles may give a life of up to six or seven years, depending on 
the strength of the coating. 


392 HARBOR REPORTS 


Creosoted fir piles properly impregnated and not damaged in handling 
or after driving may be expected to give an average life in excess of 15 
years and in the Southern Pacific Long Wharf gave a service varying from 
18 to 29 years with about 30 per cent showing some attack of Limnoria and 
molluscan borers. 

Concrete armored wooden piles of some types seem to promise an average 
life of 15 years or more, but the age of existing structures is not great 
enough to permit accurate predictions to be made. 

Concrete cylinder and reinforced concrete pile foundations are not of 
sufficient age to give the basis for accurate predictions, but serious de- 
terioration does not seem to have generally set in on well built structures 
under 10 years of age. 

The record of cast and wrought iron supports is excellent and such struc- 
tures well designed may be expected to give a life of 40 years or more with 
comparatively little maintenance. 


PUGET SOUND 
Description 


Puget Sound (Fig. 139) is a landlocked body of water, which contains 
several of the more important harbors of the Pacific Coast. It is entered 
from the Ocean through the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, which is about 82 
miles long from Cape Flattery to Point Wilson. The Strait is from 10 to 
30 miles wide and ranges in depth from 30 to 130 fathoms. On the south © 
or United States side there are a number of harbors, few of which contain 
important marine structures. The general set of the currents is toward the 
north or Vancouver Island shore. 

Puget Sound itself has a very irregular shore line, containing a large 
number of harbors and inlets, some of them of considerable size. The dis- 
tance from Point Wilson to Seattle is, roughly, 32 miles, and from Point 
Wilson to Tacoma, 70 miles. Currents in Admiralty Inlet vary from 2 to 5 
knots per hour, and are less in the more open waters near Seattle and 
Tacoma. The depth of water in the channels is great and in Elliott and 
Commencement Bays, the harbors of Seattle and Tacoma, respectively, 
there are depths of 50 to 80 fathoms. The extreme tidal range is from 17 
to 19 feet. The result is that there is a considerable current close to the 
shore in these harbors, which aids in the distribution of marine borers, 
and these depths are also largely responsible for the small variation in 
temperature during the year. In general the water temperature, except in 
the shallow harbors, seldom gets below 50° Fahr. or above 55° to 58° Fahr. 

There are a number of fair-sized rivers entering the Sound from the 
Olympic Mountains on the west and the Cascades on the east, but they have 
little influence on the salinity except in the immediate vicinity of their 
mouths. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Records do not show any periods in the past when struc- 
tures in the harbors of Puget Sound were not subject to attack by borers. 
The oldest structure of which a record has been found was a wharf built in 
1877 by the Southern Pacific Company, which had its piles protected by 
copper sheathing, indicating that the danger was recognized at that time. 
There has always been a considerable amount of floating timber in all these 


PUGET SOUND 393 


waters, which has undoubtedly assisted in maintaining a uniform and gen- 
eral distribution of borers. 

It is generally agreed that an untreated pile will have a life of from six 
months to two years and therefore such piles are not used except for the 
most temporary structures. 

Bankia setacea and Limnoria lignorum are the only wood borers so far 
known to exist, and are both exceedingly destructive. 


Committee Investigations—Because of the known general distribution 
of borers and the generally uniform conditions as to salinity and tem- 
perature it was not considered necessary to place more than a few test 
boards in the Sound. They were all installed by the Bureau of Yards and 
Docks of the Navy, and are located as follows: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Keyport, Wash—Pacific Coast 
PeOrped@ Stallone ers oo ects 6 aD = 1 S05 aleNavy occ. coe or ee Jan. 16 1923 1.0 18.0 
Receiving Ship Dock—Puget 
Sound Navy Yard..........- WD=1304b | Navy ....0e.e-e0ek: Jan. 16, 1923 iL t8) 29.0 
Pier No. 8—Puget Sound Navy 
EIR MENS Aca tits oe tance ia WID=LSO4 a TUN away eeteea cies Jan. 16, 1923 126 34.0 
Naval Ammunition Depot...... Yas OG sa NAW Vics eden atte cee Jan. 16, 1923 1.0 1320 


Figs. 140 to 148, inclusive, show salinity and temperature records at the 
test board locations. 

The results of inspections of the blocks from these test boards are as 
follows: 

YD-1305—The first specimens of Limnoria appeared on block 2, removed 
February 20, and the first of Bankia on block 5, removed April 1. One 
month later the largest of Bankia had reached a length of 34 inch, and on 
June 1 about 3 inches. The number of specimens both of Bankia setacea 
and Limnoria was small and those of Bankia did not grow rapidly. The 
associated organisms were Balanus (very heavy growth), Bryozoa, Algae, 
Mytilus and some hydroids. The last test block inspected was removed 
January 16, 1924. 

YD-1304 b—The first Limnoria appeared on block 4, removed March 16, 
and the first shipworm punctures on the next block two weeks later. The 
largest Bankia setacea on May 1 had reached a length of only 1 inch, and 
only about 35 specimens of Limnoria were found. From this time on the 
growth of the Bankia was more rapid, but the freedom with which they 
crossed from the blocks into the supporting board and vice versa made it 
very difficult to determine their length. The longest burrow found entirely 
in the block was in block 16, removed September 19, and was about 10 inches 

| long. Limnoria attack was light and associated organisms were Balanus 
; and hydroids. The last block reported was removed January 16, 1924. 

: YD-1304 a—The first specimens of Limnoria were found in block 4, re- 
moved March 16, and the first shipworm puncture in the next block, re- 
; moved April 1. No others were found until block 9, removed June 1, which 
contained one Bankia setacea about 1 inch long. The next block two weeks 
later contained three animals, the largest about 4 inches long, while a 
length of over 9 inches was found one month later. The same difficulty 
existed in this board as in the preceding one in measuring the length of the 


394 HARBOR REPORTS 


animals; one of the smallest in block 16, removed September 19, was nearly 
5 inches long. Limnoria attack was light and associated organisms the 
same as on YD-13804 B. 


YD-1306—The first Limnoria appeared in block 2, removed February 16, 
and the first Bankia setacea, which was nearly 3 inches long, in block 10, 
removed June 15. Some of the later blocks contained no specimens of 
Bankia and others only one or two, but the length of one animal found in 


STATUTE MILES MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 


2 3 
NAUTICAL MILES 


TEST BOARDS 
PUGET SOUND 
WASHINGTON 1923 


Fic. 139 


block 18, removed October 16, was over 17 inches. Limnoria attack was 
light. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus and hydroids. 


Methods of Protection 


Pile Coatings—Some use has been made of various preservative paints 
and the same results obtained as at other ports, i. e., this method of pro- 
tection is of only temporary value, even with the best of preservatives. 


Creosote Impregnation—Treatment by impregnation with creosote has 
been practiced for many years. The first process was by use of the open 
tank where the piles were boiled in creosote under atmospheric pressure. 
Some piles treated by this process gave good service, lasting about 20 years, 
but since douglas fir, which is the only timber in general use in this terri- 


395 


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396 HARBOR REPORTS 


tory for construction purposes, is very hard to impregnate, the average life 
was not satisfactory. 

The present method of treatment generally involves boiling under vacuum 
and impregnation under pressure. With this method and the use of a good 
quality of creosote an average life of 12 to 16 years may be expected, but 
on account of the variation in the resistance of this timber to treatment 
a certain percentage of failures can be expected in considerably less time. 
For example, the Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Company re- 
port a structure built in 1917 on piles with 12 pounds of creosote per cubic 
foot showing attack in 1922. 

At the Pudget Sound Navy Yard all ‘permanent’ structures are sup- 
ported either on creosoted piles or are of concrete construction, the amount 
of creosote injected being generally about 12 pounds per cubic foot. No 
oil analyses are available. There follows a list of the Navy Yard piers on 
creosoted piles: 


Name of Pier Date Built Dimensions Bracing Condition 
Receiving Ship Pier. 1920 9072/x22’ to 32%.) Spiked=.oa. Unattacked March 5, 1923. 
Coal Wharf........ 1915 and 1923 | 700’x57’ to 94’.| Batter Piles.| Unattacked March 5, 1923. 


Untreated .| Braces riddled. 


Pict -ae.70 ere ee 1921 1042x480 eee Bolted ae Piles good March 6, 1923. 
Approach to Pier 4. 1914 2 1OfR40 16 Ot alsin eee Unattacked March 7, 1923. 
Riéreo ee eie~ fee 1914. 505x800" eee eer eee Rebuilt 1923. 82 piles reported all at- 


tacked, Bankia only in damaged piles, 
slight Limnoria attack in others. 
Bree ReGasmnky oe 1912-1914 529’x49’......| Batter Piles.| Unattacked March 7, 1923. 


Pier Gc eee ee 1904 B02 <5 14 Batter Piles. ee bet tape piles replaced 1920 in 350’ 
ength. 


Extension Pier 8.... 1914 100°x60 3 Batter Piles.| Unattacked March 9, 1923. 


All creosoted piles now being used at the Yard are treated in accordance 
with the specifications of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee. 
The usual length of piles used is between 45 and 65 feet, and the cost in 
1923, untreated, averages about 16 cents per foot, while creosoted piles cost 
from 65 cents per linear foot for piles 45 to 65 feet long to 85 cents for 
those between 75 and 90 feet. 


Pile Armors—The “Perfection” process seems to have been first used 
in 1895 in a dock at Tacoma. This process is described on page 95. 


Metal—In 1877 the Southern Pacific Company built a wharf at Tacoma 
on copper sheathed piles; when this dock was removed in 1898 the piles 
were in excellent condition and were re-used in other structures. Forty- 
four of them are still in service in a bridge and reported to be in good con- 
dition, though the copper was removed in 1898 when the piles were taken 
out of salt water. ; 

Iron cylinders surrounding clusters of piles were used in two Northern 
Pacific structures in 1882, and were found in 1910 to be corroded to such 
an extent that borers had heavily attacked the piles. 


Concrete—An interesting method of protecting piles with concrete has 
been used in the construction of the new piers by the Port of Tacoma Com- 
mission. A concrete casing was built with a cement gun on the pile before 
driving, and the piles were handled very carefully to prevent fracture of 
the coating on account of flexure of the pile. This work was done in 1921 
and it is, of course, too soon to make any prediction as to its durability. 


397 


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398 HARBOR REPORTS 


A similar method of protection was used by the Pacific Northwest Trac- 
tion Company on one of their structures located above low tide near Belling- 
ham, Wash. This trestle, about 5 miles long, was built with white cedar 
piles in 1911. It was heavily attacked by Limnoria. In 1916 concrete cas- 
ings were built from a point 6 inches below to 18 inches above the mud line, 
but the Limnoria attack continued above this point. Next a wash of cement 
and sand was applied without removing the barnacles on the pile, which 
was effective for about two years. In 1918 the piles were scraped clean, 
covered with mesh reinforcement and a cement gun coating about *4 inch 
thick applied. The holes dug into the piles by Limnoria were filled out at 
the same time. These piles are reported to be in good condition at the 
present time. 


The new municipal piers at both Seattle and Tacoma are built with an 
earth or sand fill in the center with aprons supported on piles on the slopes 
to carry the outside walls of the warehouses and the railroad tracks on the 
face of the pier. In Seattle creosoted piles are used and in Tacoma both 
creosoted and gunited piles. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—There are a number of concrete structures at the Navy 
Yard, and while most of them are of too recent date to give service records 
of value, the description of the construction methods will be of value to 
later investigators. 


Pier No. 8, 403 feet by 60 feet, was constructed in 1911 on reinforced 
cylinders, spaced 16 feet longitudinally and transversely. The deck is 
formed of I-beams with an 8-inch reinforced slab floor finished with a 1- 
inch granulithic surface. 

These cylinders had 8 15/16-inch walls reinforced with 1-inch round rods 
and “Hy-Rib” with 2-inch cover over the reinforcing. The mixture was 
1:2 cement mortar. After the cylinders were sunk to place the bottom was 
sealed, the water pumped out and the cylinders filled with 1—variable—4 
concrete. The specifications provided that the quantity of sand should be 
such as would produce the greatest density. Forms were removed 48 hours 
after completion of the cylinders and a 30-day curing period was observed. 
Fresh water and cement manufactured by the Santa Cruz Portland Cement 
Company were used and all reinforcing was carefully cleaned. 

In April, 1921, some deterioration in both the cylinders and deck girders 
and slabs, generally in construction joints, was found and was repaired 
with “Gunite” above a point 2 feet above high water. 

An inspection of the superstructure on March 9, 1923, showed some addi- 
tional deterioration, but the “Gunite” repairs made in 1921 were generally 
in good condition. 

Pier 4—This pier is supported on cylinders cast in place in 1913-14, and 
has a timber approach. The concrete portion is 490 feet by 80 feet, and 
the cylinders are spaced 20 feet transversely and 30 feet longitudinally. 
The deck is constructed with reinforced concrete girders and stringers with 
an 81-inch slab floor. 

The cylinders, 4 feet in diameter, belled to 11 feet at the bottom, are 
supported by wooden piles. The wooden watertight forms were sunk to 
place, sealed, pumped out, the reinforcing placed and the concrete carefully 
deposited and spaded around the reinforcing, a 2-inch cover being main- 


8 


399 


PUGET SOUND 


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400 HARBOR REPORTS 


tained. The reinforcing, which was carefully cleaned, consisted of 5-inch 
rods 4 inches by 8 mesh and “Hy-Rib.” The concrete mixture was 1:2:4 
with the upper 6 feet containing ‘“Truscon paste” as an integral water- 
proofing compound, in quantity equal to 2 per cent of the cement. 

Minor disintegration was found above water level in 1921 in both cylin- 
ders and deck and was repaired with “Gunite.” An inspection of the under- 
water portion of the structure in September, 1923, disclosed some disin- 
tegration, and some large crabs (Oregonia gracilis Dana) and (Cancer 
productus) were found in the holes. The diver reported that these crabs 
when found were pecking at the concrete, but it is not thought that they 
had anything to do with the disintegration. 

Pier 5—The pier under construction in 1923 is 1,200 feet by 80 feet, sup- 
ported on pre-cast cylinders 4 feet and 4 feet 6 inches in diameter, with 
wall thicknesses of 6 inches and 8 inches, respectively. It was found im- 
possible to seal the bottoms, so they are being filled under air pressure. 

The reinforcing, which was carefully cleaned, consists of square bars, 
No. 20 wire mesh and spiral hooping with not less than 2-inch cover. The 
concrete mixture is 1:2:2 and a 1:334:414 mixture for filling, using sand, 
gravel and Olympic cement with a consistency such that the concrete flowed 
freely. 

The curing period has been five weeks, and the cylinders were Tides Sh 
daily during this period. 

The deck is of the girder, beam and slab type, using a 1:234:4%4 mix- 
ture. For both deck and cylinders, Professor Abrams’ method of propor- 
tioning was used, the water amounting to about 4 gallons per sack of 
cement. 

Seawall—This structure under construction in 1923 is 1,200 feet long and 
consists of wooden bearing and brace piles enclosed by reinforced concrete 
sheet piling and surmounted by columns carrying the usual girder and slab 
deck construction. 

The proportioning of the mixture for the sheet piles was done in ac- 
cordance with the system devised by Professor Abrams, and resulted in an 
average of about 1:114:2 and about 31% gallons of water per sack of cement 
for fairly dry aggregate. The aggregate was sand and gravel with Olympic 
cement. . 

Piles were kept wet for seven days and seasoned over 30 days, after which 
they were driven with a 4,535-lb. drop hammer and two jets under 250 
younds pressure. Reinforcing was 1-inch round rods, and the proportion 
of section for 18 by 18 inch piles 30 feet and under in length was 1.94 per 
cent, and for 18 by 20 inch piles 30 feet to 50 feet was 1.74 per cent, in all 
cases with over 2-inch cover. 

The method of proportioning, materials, etc., was the same for the col- 
umns and deck as for the sheet piles. 

Quay Wall A—This is a reinforced wall 1,190 feet long, of counterpart 
type, built in 1905-06 inside a cofferdam. 

The mixture was 1:3:6 with a 1:2 mortar facing. The lower 6 feet of 
the wall was placed in the dry, but the tide frequently covered the re- 
mainder, which was carefully cleaned and grouted before recommencing 

work. The wall has been repaired at various times, and in March, 1923, 
showed considerable deterioration. 

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HARBOR REPORTS 


402 


_— 


BRITISH COLUMBIA Aus 


crete, was built in 1908-18. Materials used were local sand and gravel and 
“Golden Gate” cement with a granolithic facing. 

In general this wall was in good condition on March 7, 1923, except for a 
few temperature cracks where disintegration had commenced. 

Quay Wall D—This is a gravity type wall, built in 1901-02. Local aggre- 
gates and “Condon” cement were used in the proportion of 1:214:5. This 
concrete was hand mixed and deposited below water level by tremie and 
above with wheelbarrows. 

The inspection of March 8, 1923, showed this wall to be badly deteri- 
orated, though “Gunite” repairs had been made. 

Quay Wall E—This wall, of the gravity type, 180 feet long, was con- 
structed in 1895-96, using local aggregates and K. B. & S. English cement 
in the proportion of 1:2:4. It has deteriorated considerably between high 
and low water. 

Several other walls and structures are reported, but generally of the 
same type of construction and in about the same condition (Fig. 144). 


Conclusions 


No structure in the waters of Puget Sound should be constructed with 
untreated piles if it is expected to last over one year, and it may fail in less 
time if it be constructed in May or June. 

The period of immunity from Bankia attack probably covers the fall and 
winter months of the year, but there is no apparent period of immunity 
from Limnoria. 

Thoroughly creosoted douglas fir piles may be expected to have an aver- 
age life of from 12 to 16 years. 

The only concrete structures reported are those at the Navy Yard, and 
while the older structures show deterioration they were not built under 
specifications which would be considered good practice today. 


BRITISH COLUMBIA 


No test boards have been maintained or records systematically collected 
in British Columbia waters, but it is stated by the scientists of the Biologi- 
cal Laboratory of the Bureau of Marine and Fisheries of the Dominion, 
that in the vicinity of the laboratory at Departure Bay, Bankia setacea and 
Limnoria are very destructive and that Hxosphaeroma oregonensis is also 
present. | 

Salinity readings are shown on Fig. 145. The mouth of the Fraser River 
is directly across the Strait from the laboratory, and when in flood the 
fresh water discharged by it is in sufficient quantity to materially affect the 
salinity at the latter location. 


reecintion ALASKAN COAST 


The coast line of Alaska, 25,000 miles in length, contains many fine har- 
bors, but on account of lack of industrial development, it did not seem 
necessary or desirable to make a detailed study of any of them. Practically 
all the Pacific harbors on the south coast of Alaska and those of the 
Aleutian Islands have some conditions in common; their depth is great, the 
tidal range is considerable and the water temperatures have only small sea- 
sonal variations, and while there are large streams entering some of them 
the depths are so great that the effect of the streams on the salinity does 
not generally extend any great distance from their mouths. 


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HARBOR REPORTS 


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404 


ALASKAN COAST 405 


Ketchikan (Fig. 146), 649 nautical miles from Seattle, the southernmost 
important port, is located in the extreme southeastern corner of the Terri- 
tory on Tongass Narrows. The wharves extend to deep water and the 
depth 200 to 300 yards off the wharves is from 8 to 20 fathoms. The tidal 
currents do not exceed 14% to 2 knots per hour. The maximum range of 
tide is about 23 feet. 

Petersburg (Fig. 147), 778 nautical miles from Seattle, is a small vil- 
lage about one mile south of the north end of Wrangel Narrows. The depth 
of water at the wharves is only 12 feet at low water, and the tidal current 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
KETCHIKAN HARBOR 
ALASKA 


NAUTICAL MILES 


Fic. 146 


which flows past the end of the wharves has a velocity of somewhat over +t 
knots per hour, with a maximum tidal range of 20 feet. 


Juneau (Fig. 148) 886 nautical miles from Seattle, is an important min- 
ing town and the capital of the Territory. It is located on the northeast- 
erly side of Gastineau Channel. There are several wharves with a tidal 
current passing them of about 2 knots per hour. Very heavy gales occur, 
but the channel is so narrow that there is very little sea. Depths in the 
fairway are about 20 fathoms, and the maximum tidal range is over 21 feet. 


Sitka (Fig. 149), the former capital of the Territory, is located on Bara- 
noff Island, 59 miles west of Juneau. It is located on a large bay studded 


407 


ALASKAN COAST 


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408 . HARBOR REPORTS 


with islands. There is a depth of 24 feet at the city wharf and 28 feet at 
the Naval Wharf on Japonski Island. The general depth of the Bay is from 
5 to 9 fathoms. Tidal currents are about 2 knots at the wharves with a 
maximum range of about 13 feet. 

Seward (Fig. 150), about 1,200 miles by great circle route and 1,900 by 
the coastwise route from Seattle, is located about 2 miles from the head of 
Resurrection Bay and 16 miles from the ocean. It is the ocean terminus of 
the Government railway. The railroad wharf has a depth of 30 feet at its 
face and the Bay as a whole has depths up to 160 fathoms. The tidal range 
is about 20 feet and the currents at the dock are negligible. 

Kodiak (Fig. 150) is a small village on St. Paul Harbor, Chiniak Bay, 
on the northeastern end of Kodiak Island; the channel is narrow and 
crooked; the depth at the wharf is about 27 feet and in the channels and 
anchorage 8 to 30 fathoms. The tidal current at the wharves is about 2 
knots and the maximum range 13 feet. 

Dutch Harbor (Fig. 151) and Unalaska are on Unalaska Island, the 
largest of the Aleutian Islands, about 1,800 nautical miles by great circle 
course from the straits of Fuca. This is the most important harbor in 
Western Alaska. It is a large nearly landlocked bay with depths of from 
6 to 10 fathoms in the upper portion. The tidal range is about 2 feet and 
the currents negligible. The depth at the wharf at Unalaska is 25 to 36 
feet. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—No record of a biological survey of this coast has been 
found, but reports secured by the District Engineer, U. S. E. D., the Light- 
house Superintendent and the Bureau of Yards and Docks, show the follow- 
ing information obtained from wharf owners: 


eee ee EEE Eee 


Location Kind of Borers Estimated Life of 16” Pile 
Ketchthan te. 24.0 occ on oe oo a ee Teredine.<.. e242 .08 Peeled—1 year. 
EAM Orig owe Tight bark—3 to 4 years. 
W SOR el Sr cnc! se haa ee ee ee Weredine seas eee 2 years. 
Juneau and Douglasi ld )-5 os. oes ae Teredine....8..... 2 to 6 years. 
Haines Mission (Ft. Seward)+............. Weredine > re-.c ae 4 years. 
RAC WAY Tees ey a a ee ke eal ‘Teredine* rae 7 years (Hemlock unbarked.) 
Cordova (Catiadc:-N. W, Re BR.) fie se oes, Tereding 23>... 2a 8 months. (Spruce barked). 
LATAMOFIAV Ea. oo 2 years (Unbarked hemlock). 
Vaides jc Sat iieenig an ete eS Oe eae heredkine= tee. . oe 10 to 14 months. 
meward .iufes ty Aeoha’ bok oe ee Meredipe) elas sw oe 8 months to 1 year. 
Anchorage Se: viv. Gos ok ee None.............| Oldest piles 7 years. 
Kodiak. 0Res en ee 0 rae ee Teredine, Limnoria.} 3 years. 


*Wrangel is a small village near the south end of Wrangel Narrows between Ketchikan and Petersburg. 

{Haines Mission and Skagway are located on Lynn Canal about 80 and 100 miles respectively east of 
Juneau. Tidal range is high and currents are strong. 

tCordova, the terminus of the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad, and Valdez, are on Prince Wil- 
liam Sound between Sitka and Seward. Tidal range is greater at Valdez and less at Cordova than at Seward. 

§Anchorage is on Knik Arm of Cook Inlet where the water is nearly fresh and, on account of excessively 
high tidal range, strong currents and shallow water, there is a great amount of suspended silt. 


There had been no timber structures in Resurrection Bay since the aban- 
donment of the Russian Shipyard early in the nineteenth century. The 
wharf of the Alaska Central Railroad (now the U. S. Government Rail- 
road), built in the winter of 1903-4 with native spruce piles, collapsed 
under a load not exceeding 500 tons in 1905 on account of the attack of tere- 
dine borers. The piles were as thoroughly honeycombed as it is possible for 
piles to be. 


ALASKAN COAST 409 


Pile dolphins at Ketchikan were destroyed by Limnoria alone between 
1915 and 1921. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed at the fol- 
lowing locations: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Ketchikan—Dock No. 13, Forest 
OS A= OZ Rees ATU Vo eemene. beret eo cee Nov. 4, 1922 10 30 
Petersburg—Cannery Wharf....| A-103....| Army.............. Nov. 1, 1922 0.0 15 
Juneau—Old Pacific Coast Steam- 
Beng YY MET re Sos cei sans Bd (Seer POAT IVEN es fee sarees elo @ Oct. 15, 1922 1.0 22 
Sitka—Naval Wharf, Japonski 
Rela neem eee Les. Rye Use ING Vinmenes cis cr sacl steers ase April 1, 1923 1.0 19 
Seward—GovernmentR.R. Wharf} A-104....] Army.............. Nov. 6, 1922 0.0 18 
Kodiak—W. J. Erskine Wharf...| A-105....} Army...............| Dee. 1, 1922 0.0 18 
Dutch Harbor (Unalaska)—A. C. 
ANE RET eA eg ok Scns ss » Vala TsO le INANTViA feces arcs a sestons Dec. 15, 1922 as(O)P MP © ceaapairaees a 


ye 
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MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
NAUTICAL MILE SITKA HARBOR 


8 ES ALASKA 
YARDS 


$00 


Fig. 149 


A-102—One specimen of Limnoria appeared on the first block, removed 
November 16, 1922. Block 7, removed February 16, 1923, showed 25 of 
Limnoria and one of Bankia setacea about 2 inches long; on block 9, re- 
moved March 16, there were 115 specimens of Limnoria and four of Bankia 


410 HARBOR REPORTS 


setacea, the largest about 2 inches long and %% inch in diameter. These 
numbers had increased on block 11 one month later to 140 of Limnoria and 
12 of Bankia setacea, the largest about 31% inches long. The severity of 
the attack of both Bankia and Limnoria increased until by October 1 the 
blocks were completely honeycombed. Bankia specimens 8 inches long were 
found, but since many of them crossed from the blocks into the board it is 
probable that much larger animals existed. Associated organisms were 
Bryozoa and tube worms. 


Temperatures and salinities are reported by the Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey as follows, water samples being taken from the pier on which the test 
board was located: 


Temperature—° Fahr. Salinity at 60° Fahr. Parts Per 1,000 
Year Month Sore 

Mean Warmest Coldest Mean Greatest Least 
1921....) November... 42 44 39 26.0 27.9 25.8 
December.. . 43 44 41 250 2822 210 

1922) Re ATVUATY: «ane 42 43 41 No hydrome|ter readings t/aken. 

February... 41 43 39 No hydrome|ter readings tlaken. 
March. 7. 22: 41 42 41 26.2 30.2 Dues 
Aprilt arene 42 43 41 29.4 o0n2 27.6 
IM ay eee oe 44 52 43 260.27 29.4 22.9 
Janene, ore 53 OL 50 24.8 27.4 21.0 
July eee 54 59 50 27.4 28.8 26.0 
August. ...: 56 59 54 26.2 28.4 24.1 
September. . 53 54 50 23.8 27.2 14.2 
October..... 48 50 44 23 hee 16.6 
November. . 44 47 43 2222 26.6 14.0 
December.. . 40 44 38 26.2 29.4 220 
L923) 22 January: 41 43 39 28.9 30.0 27.0 
February... 41 43 38 29.0 30.2 27.2 
Manchmw..ae 41 42 39 27.9 30.0 20.8 
April\ nee 43 47 42 26.8 30.0 19.6 
May cee 47 50 43 22 DAS 19.6 
Juneser ee oe 55 61 48 24.1 26.5 21.6 
J lyn, 58 61 56 24.0 25.8 21.4 
August..... 59 61 55 24.0 26.0 Loe2 
September. . 54 O7 51 23.2 26.5 15.4 
October..... 50 oS 46 24.6 26.8 22.6 
November. . 45 49 43 22,1 24.9 1522 


A-103—Limnoria appeared on the second block, removed December 1, ~ 
1922, and several minute shipworm punctures on January 2, 19238; on Feb- 
ruary 1, 1923, the number of specimens of both Limnoria and Bankia 
setacea had not increased appreciably and the largest of the shipworms was 
only 3/16 inch long; on block 8, removed March 3, the number of specimens 
of both Limnoria and Bankia had increased and the largest Bankia was % 
inch long; block 12, removed May 23, showed about 200 specimens of Lim- 
noria and probably 50 of Bankia, the greatest length being about 2 inches. 
No associated organisms except tube worms were found. 


A-101—At Juneau the first specimens of Limnoria did not appear until 
block 5, removed January 1, 1923, 2% months after the immersion of the ~ 
board. This attack increased gradually until block 23, removed October 1, _ 
was so heavily attacked that the surface had crumbled. The first ship- 
worm punctures appeared on block 8, removed February 15, but on later 
blocks few, if any, were found until block 12, removed April 16, which con-— 
tained five specimens of Bankia setacea up to %% inch in length. No more 
were found until block 17, removed June 30, when they had reached a 
length of over 2 inches. From this time on the number and length increased 
rapidly until block 23, removed October 1, was completely riddled. The 


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412 HARBOR REPORTS 


largest animal that could be measured was about 12 inches long. The only 
associated organism was Balanus. 


YD-1303—One hundred and twenty specimens of Limnoria appeared on 
the first block, removed May 1, and about 250 on the third, removed June 1, 
this number increasing gradually through the summer. Associated organ- 
isms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Bugula) hydroids, Amphipoda and Membrani- 
pora. Bankia setacea was not found in large numbers. The last block re- 
ported was removed January 1, 1924. 


A-104—No borers appeared for two months after the immersion of the 
board, when 22 specimens of Limnoria were found on block 3, removed 
January 18. This number increased gradually until block 11, removed on 
May 14, 1923, showed about 600 of Limnoria. The first shipworms (50), 
Bankia setacea, the longest %4 inch, appeared on block 7, removed March 
15, while with block 11, removed May 14, the length had increased to 21% 
inches and the number to 60. Destruction by both Limnoria and Bankia 
proceeded rapidly until block 17, removed September 21, was completely 
filled. Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa and hydroids. 


A-105—Seven specimens of Limnoria were found on block 2, removed 
January 1, 1923, one month after the immersion of the board. This num- 
ber increased until about 400 were found on block 11, removed May 16, 
1923, and this number gradually increased. The first Bankia setacea was 
found in block 15, removed July 16, and while no large number of animals 
were found they had reached a length of 12 inches by September 16 and 
completely filled the block removed November 16. Encrusting Bryozoa 
and tube worms were the associated organisms. 


YD-1301—No borers were found until block 6, removed March 16, 1923, 
three months after immersion of the board, when 16 specimens of Limnoria 
appeared. The number found on later blocks has increased, but no great 
number has been found on any block. No shipworms appeared prior to 
December 15. The associated organisms are Bryozoa, Membranipora, 
Algae, tube worms, Amphipoda, and on the June 1st block, a large number 
of minute specimens of Balanus. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—There are a few structures along the coast 
built on creosoted douglas fir piles, but they have been constructed too re- 
cently to furnish reliable information as to the life to be expected from 
this method of protection, though the opinion of some wharf owners seems 
to indicate about 12 years. 


Some native spruce piles were sent to Seattle by the Alaska Central Rail- 
road in 1905 for creosoting, but the treating plant reported that the timber 
was badly injured by the treatment and the piles were not used. It seems 
probable that if industrial demands are sufficient, a method for creosoting 
the native timber can be developed. 


Other Timbers than Spruce and Fir—Wharf owners in several harbors 
report that unbarked hemlock piles will last approximately three times as 
long as spruce, or as long as two to three years where the borer attack is 
heavy. 

After the collapse of the Alaska Central Railroad dock at Seward in 1905, 
a portion of it was redriven with cottonwood piles. This dock was burned 


GUANTANAMO 413 


about two or three years later, at which time no attack on the cottonwood 
was found. 

The Alaska Packers’ Association built a dock on spruce piles in about 
1908 in Uyah Bay on the mainland across Shielkof Strait from Kodiak 
Island. This dock failed two or three years later on account of shipworm 
attack and because of the fact that cottonwood piles (which had been in 
place over 20 years) were still in good condition in another arm of the Bay, 
the dock was rebuilt, using cottonwood piles. This dock is still in service 
and reported to be in good condition. 


Substitutes for Timber 


There are no records available of structures of any importance built of 
concrete, iron or steel in Alaskan waters. 


Conclusions 


Attack by marine borers can be expected in practically all harbors south 
and east of the Aleutian Islands. Unprotected spruce and fir piles can be 
expected to last from six months to two years; unbarked winter cut hem- 
lock may last two or three times as long as spruce. 

The record of cottonwood piles is good and where this timber can be 
obtained it offers considerable promise as a wharf material. 

It appears that Limnoria attacks throughout the year, but that its attack 
is heavier after April 1 than before that time. 

Bankia setacea breeds in January and February, but it does not appear 
that many larve survive or that much growth takes place until about April 
15. The rate of growth generally increases from that time until about 
June 15, when it reaches its maximum. Some variation is found in the 
different harbors, but not more than might be caused by local conditions 
surrounding the test boards. 


2) ee GUANTANAMO, CUBA 
Description 


The Naval Station at Guantanamo (Fig. 152) is leased from the Cuban 
Government. The lease covers an area of about 47 square miles, of which 
9,485 acres is water. 

The climate is semi-arid, with an average temperature varying from 75° 
Fahr. in February to 85° Fahr. in August. The average range of tide is 
1.35 feet, and the currents are inappreciable. 

The wharves, of which there are seven, have depths of water alongside 
varying from 30 feet at the Main Station Wharf to 5 feet on the northwest 
side of the South Toro Cay Wharf. The anchorage has an area of about 
8 square miles. 


Marine Borers 

Past History—Marine borers, both molluscan and crustacean, are known 
to be constantly present, and unprotected timber is never employed in 
structures exposed to sea water, except in the case of temporary construc- 
tion. 

Committee Investigations—Test boards were established at two locations 
as shown in table on page 414. 

Blocks were forwarded for inspection at semi-monthly intervals. The 
results were as follows: | 


414 HARBOR REPORTS 


YD-C-1—-Young shipworms were numerous on block 2, removed Novem- 
ber 30, with tube lengths up to 8 mm. The number increased to about 100, 
and the maximum length to 25 mm. in block 3. The specimens contained 
in block 4, removed December 30, were of sufficient size and numbers for 
identification, and the following determinations were made: 


Teredo (Lyrodus) sp. “GQ” 
Teredo (Zopoteredo) johnsont 
Teredo (Teredo) portoricensis 


to which were added from the later examinations: 


Teredo atwoodi 
Teredo (Teredo) sp. “KH” 
Teredo sp. “F’”’ 
Teredo sp. “Q” 
Bankia sp. “V”’ 


The majority of animals found in all blocks were of Teredo sp. “G.” 
Bankia sp. “V’’ was observed only in block 4. The entire test specimen 
consisting of the supporting board, original blocks Nos. 9-24, and replace- 
ment blocks Nos. 25-31, was removed from the water March 15, 1923. An 
examination showed that unlike Northern localities, the shipworm embryos, 
particularly those of Teredo (Lyrodus) sp. “G”’ are in the water and are en- 
tering the wood as late as February 1. A diminished rate of growth, how- 
ever, was observed in block 27, placed December 15, when compared with 
block 3, placed November 1 and removed December 15. 

A new board of 1923 model was installed May 10, 1923, from which 5 
series of blocks have been examined. As in the old test specimen, Teredo 
sp. “G’ was always predominant, the resulting damage being severe and 
rapid. The maximum length of tubes noted was 130 mm. 

Limnoria action of medium intensity occurred on all blocks, and a few 
specimens of Martesia were generally present. Associated organisms were 
Balanus, Bryozoa, Ostrea, and Anomia. 

YD-C-2—These blocks yielded the same species found at YD-C-1, and an 
additional one, Teredo clappi. In all other respects they proved to be quite 
similar to those from YD-C-1. 

Records of temperature and salinity observed at the site of both test 
specimens during the period November 16, 1922, to February 16, 1923, are 
shown on Figs. 153 and 154. 


TEest BoaRDS, GUANTANAMO, CUBA 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining, Installed Mud Line > Lt We 
(Feet) (Feet) 
U.S. Naval Station, Guantanamo 
Maimmistatiomseierin a. aeece VoD-Gety nt Nay es ony eee Nov. 1, 1922 2.0 32.0 
HuelOw Pient seen ects wen ee Y¥DeG-27 Ail Navi ane ee eto Nov. 1, 1922 bine 18.5 


Methods of Protection 

Creosote Impregnation—At the U. S. Naval Station there are 5 water- 
front structures supported by creosoted piles, all more or less affected by 
the attack of marine borers as shown in the following table: 


GUANTANAMO 415 


STRUCTURE BUILT AFFECTED BY MARINE BORERS 
Main Station Pier 1911-12; % re- 
built in 1919 Yes. 
Fuel Oil Pier 1911 Yes. 
Hicacal Beach Pier Rebuilt 1920 Old piles—Yes. 
New piles—Slightly. 

Ordnance Wharf. 1913 Yes. 
Navy Wharf, Fisherman’s 

Point 1905 Yes. 


The first two structures, which are considered representative with re- 
spect to creosoted structures at this station, were treated under the fol- 
lowing specifications: 

“The piles after being stripped of all bark, including as much of the inner 
bark as practicable, shall be subjected for five hours to the action of live 
steam under a pressure of not exceeding 20 pounds per square inch gauge. 
After the pressure treatment a vacuum of not less than 20 inches of mer- 
cury shall be created in the chamber containing the piles, which shall be 
maintained for six hours. Oil shall then be admitted to the chamber. The 
vacuum shall be maintained while the oil is flowing into the chamber and 
until the chamber is entirely filled with oil. Sufficient pressure shall then 
be applied to the contents of the chamber to force a penetration of oil not 
less than 1% inches and a total absorption of not less than 16 pounds of 
oil per cubic foot of wood for long leaf pine and 18 pounds for short leaf 
or loblolly pine.” 

“The oil used for the creosoting shall not flash below 185° Fahr. nor burn 
below 200° Fahr. The yield of naphthalene from the oil between the tem- 
perature of 410° and 470° Fahr. shall not be less than 42 per cent nor 
greater than 60 per cent by volume. Inspecting of the fender logs will 
be made at a point from which original shipment is made. Inspection of 
creosoting will be made at the creosote works.” 

The piles for both the Main Station and Fuel Oil piers were short leaf 
pine, the original number driven in the former being 534 and the latter 
210. Approximately one-third of the Main Station pier piles was replaced 
in 1919 on account of the destructive action of marine borers. Of the 
original piles in the Fuel Oil pier 35 have been replaced subsequent to 1919, 
and many of those remaining are in need of replacement. The attack by 
both shipworms and crustacean borers is considered very serious, slightly 
more intensive on the Main Station pier than on the Fuel Oil pier. The 
range of destructive action is concentrated at the mud line and between 
low and high water. 


Armor—The Lighthouse Wharf is built on treated piles protected by 
12 inch diameter cast iron pipe which extends from below the mud line to 
above high water level. The date of construction is unknown, but was 
presumably prior to 1911. The present condition of the piles so protected 
is said to be good. The fender piles are creosoted and their condition is 
such as to require renewals. 


Substitutes for Timber 

Concrete—On account of the heavy attack of marine borers on the 
“Station Pier,’ the Navy, in 1922, constructed a new concrete pier 50 feet 
by 360 feet. 

This pier is carried on reinforced concrete piles 15 inches square and 
from 65 to 80 feet long with four batter piles to each bent. 

The reinforcement consisted of four one-inch corrugated square bars 


HARBOR REPORTS 


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418 HARBOR REPORTS 


banded with 5/16 inch rods. The cover over the bars was only 114 inches, 
and over the bands only 15/16 inch, which the Bureau of Yards and 
Docks considers an experiment justified by the richness and density of the 
concrete. 

The aggregates were local sand and gravel carefully screened and graded. 
The mixture was of “quaking consistency,” in the proportion 1:1:2. The 
piles were cured from 35 to 72 days before driving, and were kept wet for 
the first 28 days of this period. 

The reinforced concrete deck which is designed for a load of 500 eet Sak 
per square foot, or a 46,000 pound wheel load on the track, was built 
with the same materials and method. The mixture was 1:2:4 and of 
“quaking consistency,” both the deck and the piles being carefully rammed 
and. spaded. 

This wharf was built by Yard forces and the piles are reported to have 
cost about $1.30 per foot or $1.70 per foot in place. 

This structure is of course too new and too carefully built to show de- 
terioration at the present time. 


Conclusions 

The attack of all types of borers is heavy, and though there appears to be 
periods when the activity of some species is lessened, there is a serious 
attack at all seasons of the year. 

Well creosoted and undamaged piles may be expected to give an average 
life of about 8 years unless otherwise protected. 

Cast iron pipe casings probably render the most efficient service for the 
protection of wooden piles. 


VIRGIN ISLANDS 
Description 

The Virgin Islands lie wholly within the limits of strong northeast trade 
winds which, except when disturbed by atmospheric depression, blow with 
the greatest regularity during the entire year. The investigations covered 
the islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix, testboards having been located at 
St. Thomas and Christiansted respectively. 

St. Thomas Harbor (Fig. 155), on the south coast of St. Thomas Island, 
is the most important harbor of the American group of the Virgin Islands. 
About 500 yards wide at the entrance between Rupert Rock Beacon and — 
Frederick Point, it spreads out on either side into a basin about *4 mile © 


in diameter. The average temperature and salinity of the water are 82° — 


Fahr. and 22 parts per thousand respectively. Although the water is ap- j 


parently clean, a comparatively large amount of oil and waste is present F 


and sewage from the city of St. Thomas (population in 1920, 7,747) is 
emptied, untreated, into the harbor. The maximum tide is approximately 
1.3 feet, the average being slightly less than 1 foot. There are practically 
no currents except tidal variations of low velocity. The depth varies from ~ 
a few inches along the beach, and 6, 8, or 10 feet along the piers to a maxi- — 
mum of 35 feet in the outer harbor. Hurricane season extends from July 
15 to November 1, and during this period each year there are several — 
storms in which the velocity of the wind reaches 75 miles per hour. The 
last severe hurricane occurred in 1916, the wind on that occasion exceeding 
a velocity of 100 miles per hour. Except under unusual conditions the 
wave height in the harbor, which is well protected, is negligible. 


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420 HARBOR REPORTS 


Christiansted Harbor (Fig. 156), the greater part of which is shoal, is 
on the north coast of St. Croix Island and its principal entrance is by the 
channel between Long Reef and Scotch Bank, which has a charted least 
depth of 21 feet. Along the face of the town of Christiansted, south of 
Protestant Cay (a small islet in the harbor, 150 yards north of the town), 
there is a stone quay with 12 feet of water alongside, which is a loading 
pier for small vessels. There is also a small wharf at the Central Sugar 
Factory for unloading coal barges. The range of tide is about 1 foot. 


Marine Borers 

Past History—Until the beginning of these investigations there were 
few records concerning marine borers in these waters although they were 
known to exist in great numbers. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- 


lows: 
Bottom of | Bottom of 
Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
St. Thomas Harbor Municipal 
Ce ee eee eis Cas ceanineel a avduo Dame ¥D=V=l.~ | Navy ® js see eee nee Sept. 1, 1922 2.0 52> 
Christiansted 24 spiel Y Da Vie2 Ss oN Gyno cieaeaneeerenenete Sept. 15, 1922 0.3 Seo 


The results of the examination of blocks from these test boards were as 
follows: 

YD-V-1—Block 2, removed September 30, contained about 100 very young 
shipworms. The length of the tubes had increased to % inch in block 3, 
and in block 7, removed December 18, Teredo sp. D 3 inches in length was 
noted. The destruction, both rapid and severe, was due mainly to Teredo 
sp. G which formed about 95 per cent of the shipworms. Other species 
identified were Teredo sp. J, Teredo johnson, Teredo sp. Q and Teredo por- 
toricensis. A. new board of 1923 model was substituted for the old April 2. 
Shipworms appeared on the first blocks removed from this board and the 
attack became so severe that it was found impractical to continue the test 
due to the loss of the supporting board. Limnoria action was of medium 
intensity. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Ostrea and Algae. 


YD-V-2—The first block to show shipworms was block 6, removed De- 
cember 30, in which 1 specimen of Teredo clappi, 1 inch long, was found. 
Block 8, removed February 8, contained 3 specimens of Teredo johnsoni, 
the longest tube being 1 inch in length. Two specimens, one each of 
Teredo atwoodi and Teredo clappi, length 200 mm. and 18 mm. respectively, 
were found in blocks 9, 10 and 11. Block 12 contained no shipworms but 
was well scarred by Limnoria. Several hundred shipworms were found in 
block 13, removed April 16, the majority of them being Teredo somersi 
with lengths not exceeding 20 mm. The same block contained a few speci- 
mens of Teredo clappi 40 mm. in length. Blocks 14-20 inclusive contained 
from 20 to 50 specimens of Teredo somersi and Teredo clappi with lengths 
reaching up to 75 mm. and 90 mm. respectively. Block 23, removed Septem- 
ber 17, was the last to be examined. This contained one specimen of Teredo 
somersi and one of Teredo fulleri. Embryos were found in the animals from 


a 


VIRGIN ISLANDS 421 


blocks 13, 17, 18 and 23, removed April 16, June 15, J uly 2 and September 
17 respectively. 

Field Tests—Test blocks bound with iron bands spaced at intervals of 
% inch, from 1% to 214 inches, were submerged at St. Thomas. A discus- 
sion of the results of this test will appear later. 


Methods of Protection 


With few exceptions, timber structures are confined to small and unim- 
portant piers. The piles of these structures are usually brush coated with 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
ST.THOMAS HARBOR 
WEST INDIBS 


NAUTICAL MILES 


3 


(EES Aa 


pitch and tar and if of native timber they are often charred to a depth of 
about 1% inch. When carefully done, this treatment is said to prolong the 
life of piles beyond the year usually reckoned for untreated timber. Piles 
treated with 16 pounds of creosote per cubic foot and driven in 1918 in 
structure No. 1, Naval Wharf, St. Thomas, were removed in 1922, being 
practically destroyed by shipworms. (See page 127.) 


Armor—In several cases in St. Thomas Harbor, including the large 
piles at the coal docks and the dolphins at the Municipal Piers, that portion 


HARBOR REPORTS 


422 


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SqGuvod LSaL 


NOIL s 
AO NOILVIO INIMOHS dv¥W SZ1IN IWOILNWN 


G3LS H1Y30IN4 at 


One u 


HAITI 423 


of the pile from the mud line to two feet above the water line is encased in 
copper sheathing, the pile having previously been covered with felt. This 
method of protection has been more satisfactory than any other in use and 
so long as the sheathing is kept absolutely intact no deterioration results. 
However, it has been noted that the smallest dislodgment of the sheathing 
allows the Teredo to begin its destructive work under the most favorable 
circumstances. Under such conditions the pile lasts only a short time, the 
copper shell alone remaining after a few months of the activities of the 
borers. 

The oil pier of the West Indian Company, Limited, in the harbor of St. 
Thomas, consists of one hundred and twenty-five untreated yellow pine piles, 
eighty-one of which are used as dolphins and the remainder as bearing 
piles under the pier. The diameter of the piles varies from sixteen to twenty 
inches and the copper sheathing covers the whole length of the pile from the 
point to the butt. It is of No. 20 gage pure copper as it was found that 
composition sheets did not fulfill the requirements. Of the piles noted only 
three show any signs of deterioration after having been in place about 
eight years, and the sheathing of these three has been damaged by collision 
by vessels or flotsam. The remaining piles appear to be in practically as 
good condition as when they were driven and will probably last indefinitely 
if the copper casing is not damaged by exterior interference. 

The small structures in which copper sheathing has been used, appear to 
be in practically the same condition as the West Indian Company’s pier. 


Substitutes for Timber 

Metal—Steel and wrought iron piles and steel sheet piling have been 
used in a number of piers at St. Thomas. The deterioration of the iron and 
steel cylinders is of course somewhat less than that of wood piling, but in a 
number of cases the metal is badly rusted, between the high and low water 
lines, and in some instances, piles which have been in place for seven or 
eight years have been replaced or need replacement. Corrosion is present 
but no electrolytic action is discernible. The surface is badly rusted and 
pitted, the worst condition existing between the high and low water marks. 


Concrete—There are no concrete structures of importance in either St. 
Thomas or Christiansted harbors for which records are available. 


Conclusions 

Both crustacean and molluscan borers are active in Virgin Islands har- 
bors, and timber structures, unless protected with cast iron or copper 
armor, are of doubtful economy. 

Metal structures of proper design, material and construction deserve 
consideration for this territory. 


REPUBLIC OF HAITI 
Marine Borers 
Past History—It has not been possible to collect any records of value, 
though tke rapid destruction caused by marine borers is well known. 
Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- 
lows (Fig. 157): 


424 HARBOR REPORTS 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Portam*Princer 252 as. ote YD-P-1...| Dept. of Public Works} Dec. 1, 1922 oO 6.2 


AUX Caves Rc 6 bie tee sce YD-P-2...| Dept. of Public Works} Jan. 15, 1923 2.0 55 


On account of the transportation service, blocks were received somewhat 
irregularly and were consequently not always in the most favorable con- 
dition for examination. The results follow: 


AGT ee eek: O CoEsAsM 
: Ay ag 


—— PHARE MONTE CHRISTI 


— a". - 3 


iN cape as) 
( HAITIEN =) Pm 
—« 


ca oe Gas es 


SAN 
MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF ® 


TEST BOARDS 
REPUBLIC OF HAITL 


SCALE OF MILES 


CARRIBEAN 


feb fee aby 


YD-P-1—Many shipworm punctures were visible on block 1, removed 
December 15. Block 2 contained about 200 embryonic shipworms, and 
block 3, removed January 15, about 100 specimens of Teredo portoricensis 
and Teredo sp. G, the largest animal having attained a length of 30 mm. 
Block 4, removed February 1, was well filled with Bankia sp. V, Teredo sp. 
E, Teredo portoricensis and Teredo sp. G, the two last named having tubes 
of 30 mm. in length and containing larve. In block 5 the greatest length 
recorded was 8 inches; Bankia sp. X and Teredo clappi also appeared in 
this block. Succeeding blocks were well filled, the majority of specimens 
being Teredo sp. G, except in block 10. Block 10 contained Teredo sp. W. 
A new board of the 1923 model was substituted for the old, June 1. The 


DECEMBER 
B 10 1B 20 25 


"NOVEMBER 
5 10 18 20 25 


OCTOBER 
5 10 18 20725 
7] 


S$ 10 18 20 28 
ecugse: 


SEPTEMBER 


AUGUST 
B 10 * 2° as 
HH 
U 


Hi 


tH 
tH 


i 
te 


ae 


ag 


Me 


tH 


20 
ee 
HH 


bet 


JULY 
Raine 
i 


oo 


a 


5 10 18 
7 att EGRCRe EEG! 

ee 8! eat 
itd Ee a Hit 

eegseeeseedt 


oS saset 


JUNE 


HAITI 


CHE 


ssrreeE 


B 10 15 20 28 


aaitezed eteees eceats 


au 7 a 
ae a 


a aa HH ae 


| 
ae 7 ie i i 


cee 
a | nile 


MARCH 
i 15 


5 10 15 20 25 
DECEMBER 


NOVEMBER © 


5S 10 15 20 25 


S 10 18 20 25 
OCTOBER 


5 10 153 20 25 
SEPTEMBER 


20 25 


AuGUST 


5 10 18 


20 25 


S&S 10 15 


JUNE 


8 10 153 20 25 


10 15 20 25 
MAY 


APRIL 


Fic. 158—TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS, PORT AU PRINCE, HAITI 


BS 10 15 20 28 


H aH a 
ee 


HEE Eee HE 


Hu a uel 
ae 


HERSEY 


426 HARBOR REPORTS 


new blocks were attacked with about the same degree of intensity as the 
old, the numerical supremacy shifting from Teredo sp. G to Teredo clappi 
and again to Teredo sp. G. Teredo johnsoni, Teredo somersi and Teredo 
fulleri were added to the list of new species. The largest specimen of 
Teredo found was 100 mm. in length, representing a growth of not more 
than 2 months; the largest of Bankia was 125 mm. in length, the age of the 
specimen not exceeding 4 months. Limnoria action was severe. Associated 
organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. 
Temperature records at this location will be found on Fig. 158. 


Y D-P-2—Shipworm embryos appeared on block 1, removed February 16. 
Block 2 contained about 100 specimens of Teredo sp. G, with lengths of 
tubes up to 5 mm. Block 3 and succeeding ones were well filled, the 
greatest lengths of tubes ranging from 30 mm. in block 3, to 60 mm. in 
block 4. A few specimens of Teredo sp. Q were noted in block 5. A new 
board of 1923 model was substituted June 1, the blocks of which showed 
attack of similar intensity to that occurring in the old test specimens. 
One month blocks showed a growth of 15 mm.; this was increased to 100 - 
mm. in the 2 months block. The last blocks examined (series No. 4) were 
removed October 1. 


Metheds of Protection 


No records have been obtained except those of a steamship dock at Port- 
au-Prince which was built in 1909-10, supported by ‘Ripley Composite 
Piles.” These are timber piles protected by concrete casings heavily rein- 
forced by heavy mesh. In 1923 the owners reported that this wharf was 
in good condition, but it does not appear that a careful inspection had been 
made. 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, WEST INDIES 
Description (Fig. 159) 

San Pedro de Macoris, on the south coast of the Island of Haiti, is a 
land locked harbor with a depth in the channel and along the docks of 
about 15 feet. The only storms are cyclonic, which occur usually about 
once in three years during the months of August, September or October. 
During the storm of September 11, 1921, the wind from the north attained 
a maximum velocity of 75 miles per hour and the waves a height of about 
4 feet. The temperature of the water, which is of full ocean salinity, aver- 
ages about 78° Fahr. On account of the waste from molasses distilleries 
the water is never clear. The tides are very small, averaging about 1.18 
feet. An occasional rise in the Higuamo River produces currents of low 
velocity in the harbor. The tidal currents are negligible. 

Santo Domingo Harbor, on the south coast of the Island of Haiti and 
west of San Pedro de Macoris, consists of an Inner and Outer Harbor. 
During the rainy season, silt brought down by the Ozama River, is present; 
during the three winter months the water is clear, as there are no sewage, 
chemical or other wastes. The temperature of the water averages about 
78° Fahr. The water of the Outer Harbor is of full ocean salinity; that of 
the Inner Harbor brackish. Normally the surface water of the Inner 
Harbor to a depth of 11% feet is sufficiently fresh for use in boilers; during 
the flood stages of the river this depth is increased from 3 to 4 feet. The 
normal tidal range is about 1 foot. There is a minimum depth of 15 feet 
in the channel and along the docks. This harbor is subjected to storms of 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 427 


Similar frequency and intensity to those recorded for San Pedro de Macoris. 

Puerto Plata Harbor is located on the north coast of the Island of Haiti, 
and has depths ranging from 3 feet at the shore line to 75 feet at the en- 
trance. Around the wharf in the ship channel the depth is about 19 feet. 
The temperature of the water, which is of ocean salinity, averages about 


MONTE CHRISTE 


PUERTO Pt ATA 


BESi3iz: 


oat} 


duit EL SEYBO 


if at Te 
h.,S-P. DE MACORIS ( 
oO i } 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 


Hig. 159 


78° Fahr. There is present a considerable amount of silt and refuse 
brought down by a small river and from the surface drainage of the city of 
Puerto Plata. The tides are fairly uniform, ranging from 3 to 4 feet, and 
small storms are frequent. 


Marine Borers 
Past History—Marine borers, both crustacean and molluscan, were 


428 HARBOR REPORTS 


known to be present in all three of the harbors described: above, and their 
activity was thought to be continuous throughout the year. 


Committee Investigations—In cooperation with the Department of Pub- 
lic Works of the Dominican Republic, through the courtesy of its Director 
General, the Committee was enabled to establish standard test boards as 
shown below: | 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
San Pedro de Macoris.......... SD lps Dept. of Public Works 
— Dominican Re- 
public. (25 vat. yee Dec. 1, 1922 6.5 6.1 
Santo Domingos gen. fe) «neers SD-250 cn as Jan. 1, 1923 gh Ore! 
Puerto Plata asec se occas oy DES IOS ie. s Jan. 10, 1923 1.0 8.2 


Blocks from these stations were received fairly regularly but often in 
such a dry condition, on account of the length of time in transit, that ex- 
amination of them was difficult. The results to date are as follows: 


SD-1—About 100 shipworm embryos appeared on block 1, removed De- 
cember 16, none of them being completely embedded in the wood. Block 2 
contained no shipworms; block 3, about 100 from 2 mm. to 3 mm. in length; 
block 4, 50 up to 25 mm. in length, and block 5 and succeeding ones were 
well filled with specimens, In block 5, removed February 15, the tubes had 
reached lengths up to 70 mm. The species identified were: Teredo por- 
toricensis, Teredo sp. G (which formed in all blocks the majority of the 
specimens), Teredo atwoodi, Teredo clappi, Teredo sp. F, Teredo somersi, 
Teredo dominicensis, and Bankia sp. V. The destruction was so rapid that 
it became necessary on April 1 to attach the blocks to a new board of 
greater thickness. The last block examined was No. 18, removed August 
31. Specimens in this block had tubes of about 100 mm. in length. Em- 
bryos were present in blocks 1, 3, 4, and probably later blocks. Limnoria 
action was slight. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, and 
Ostrea. 


SD-2—Block 2, removed February. 1, contained many hundreds of ship- 
worm embryos, practically all of which were Teredo sp. Q. One specimen 
of Bankia sp. V was found. In block 3 the majority of the organisms were 
Bankia sp. V, and this numerical supremacy was maintained in the suc- 
ceeding blocks. Destruction, although severe, did not progress so rapidly 
as at SD-1. A new board of the 1923 model was substituted for the old one 
June 1. All the remaining original and replacement blocks were examined, 
and the end of the season of activity was determined as having occurred 
about April 1. With the exception of block 2, removed August 1, which 
contained a single specimen of Bankia of undetermined species, 20 mm. in 
length, all of the new blocks were free from shipworms. The last blocks 
examined (Series 4) were removed October 1. Associated organisms were 
Balanus and Bryozoa. 


SD-3—Shipworm embryos appeared in block 2, removed February 10, and 
reached a growth in length of 20 mm. in block 6, removed April 15, the 
specimens up to this time averaging about 25 in number. Block 7 and suc- 
ceeding ones were filled, and at the time of the removal of No. 13, July 31, 


cn a 


~ 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC — A429 


the animals were passing from the blocks into the supporting board. The 
majority of specimens found in block 4 were Teredo sp. G; in block 6, 
Teredo atwoodi; and in block 7, Teredo dominicensis. On account of con- 
ditions noted above, later blocks, although received with fair regularity, 
have not been thoroughly examined. A few specimens of Teredo sp. Q 
were also found. Limnoria attack was at times severe. Associated organ- 
isms were Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula) and Ostrea. 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—Of the three harbors investigated, two of 
them, Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata, have no timber structures exposed 
to the action of marine borers. At San Pedro de Macoris there is one 
wooden dock, 850 feet by 40 feet, supported by 4 rows of timber piles on 
10 foot centers longitudinally. The piles are long leaf yellow pine. The 
original installation was of unknown treatment; the replacement piles were 
treated with 16 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. The heads of the piles 
and all timber joints were coppered and great care was otherwise taken in 
the erection of the structure. After 24 years’ service 46 of the 286 creo- 
soted piles were replaced, having been destroyed by shipworms and Lim- 
noria which gained an entrance through cracks caused by the action of 
ships against the docks and in some cases through defective creosoting. 

The fender system of the new wharf at Puerto Plata is of creosoted long 
leaf yellow .pine piles, with treatment of 16 pounds per cubic foot. After 
4 years’ service these piles were relocated at which time many of them 
were found to have been damaged severely by the scraping against them 
of ships and to a lesser extent by marine borers. 

In the Bay of Monte Christy, on the north coast of the island, there is a 
wharf supported by piles of Yarey palm from 12 to 14 feet in length. 
These piles, untreated, last about 10 years and are said to be unattacked 
by shipworms, the destruction mainly resulting from decay and erosion at 
the tide level. 


Substitutes for Timber 
Concrete—The Military Governor reports on concrete structures as fol- 
lows: 
SAN PEDRO DE MACORIS 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE AND CONDITIONS. 
Type: Reinforced Concrete dock on precast piles. 
Size: 660 feet long by 30 feet wide by 4 feet 6 inches above M. L. W. 
Piles: 4 rows of piles 9 feet 8 inches c. to c. by 10 feet 10 inches ec. to ec. 
longitudinally. Heads of piles extend 9 inches into girders. 1 row 
40 feet, 1 row 45 feet, 1 row 50 feet, and 1 row 55 feet long at each 
bent. 
Girders: Transverse girders 3 feet 6 inches by 14 inches, and longitudinal 
girders 3 feet 5 inches by 14 inches on outside rows. 
Deck: 12 inch slab 2-2-feet 6-inch gauge railroad tracks cast in deck, head 
of rail flush with top of deck. 
Fender System: 12 inches by 12 inches creosoted yellow pine edge piece and 
‘ string piece, fender piles creosoted yellow pine on 10-foot 
centers, 12 inches by 12 inches spacing piece at deck level 
between fender piles. 
Moorings: Cast iron hollow bollards 50 c. to c. each side. 


430 


HARBOR REPORTS 


Lower 1 foot 6 inches of girders exposed to salt water by tidal action as 


bottom of girders is at approximately mean low water level. 
There is practically no wave or abrasive action. 


Climate is hot during days and warm and moist nights with usually east- 
erly trade winds during day. 


PRECAST PILES. 


(a) 
(b) 
(c) 


Type: Octagonal section, 14 inches in diameter. Piles cast in 1919, 
installed in 1920, except last 4 which were driven in 1921. 

Length exposed to salt water: 18 feet maximum, 6 feet minimum. Piles 
are immersed for their full length above mud line. _ 

Concrete materials: Large aggregate, corralline limestone, soft and 
porous from quarry at Km. 2 on Macoris Mato Mayor road. Crushed 
to %4-inch size. Sand, river sand from Soco River, very fine, contained 
a few small shells and a small amount of coral. 


Cement: Atlas Portland, standard test A. S. T. M. “ 
Age: Not known. 
Water: Brackish. 

None of the aggregates were exposed to salt water before mixing. 


(d) 


Reinforcement: Eight %-inch square deformed bars, with %-inch 
square bar spirally wound. The %-inch vertical bars extended out of 
the tops of the piles, a distance of 3 feet. These bars were bent after 
driving to conform to the reinforcement in the girders. 


Type: Square Havemeyer bar. 
Grade: Medium carbon steel, open hearth steel 33,000 pounds elastic limit. 


All bars were thoroughly cleaned before concreting. 


Thickness of concrete cover: 1%4 inches. 


(e) 
(f) 


(g) 


(h) 


(i) 


Concrete mix: 1:2:8, consistently wet enough to flow freely around 
reinforcement. Surface of piles appeared very dense. 


Curing: Piles were kept in forms a minimum of four days. Piles were 
cured for thirty days before using. They were kept wet for fifteen 
days. Water used for curing was brackish. 


Handling: Piles were moved after fifteen days to storage. Rolled on 
skids about six feet apart. When required for driving they were rolled 
on to three skids about 15 feet c. to c. and thence on to a low barge 
which supported the pile through two-thirds of its length. Piles were 
lifted off the barge with two lines at third points, a strain being 
kept on lower line until pile was nearly vertical. No hair line cracks 
noted. 

Driving: Hammer Arnot Steam No. 727. The heads of a few piles were 
spalled but not badly. This spalling is not a serious matter in this 
structure as heads of piles are cast 9 inches into girders. 
Present Conditions: As piles are submerged at all times, careful exam- 
ination could not be made without a diver. However, no serious defects 
could be noted by feeling with the hands below the water level. 


DECK AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 


(a) 


(b) 


(c) 
(d) 


14 inches x 8 feet 6 inches continuous girders over each bent and 
longitudinal on two outside rows. 

Deck 12 inches thick, continuous. 

Exposures: Deck is 4 feet 6 inches above M.L.W. 

Lower 1 foot 6 inches of girders is alternately exposed and wet as 
bottom of girders is approximately at mean low water level. Wave 
and spray action are not serious factors. 


Concrete materials: Same as in precast piles. 
Reinforcement in girders: 5% inch square deformed bars, 3 x 8 inch 


wire cloth on outside of bars on bottom and two sides, minimum cover ~ 
of 2 inches. Steel same as in piles. There are three bars in bottom of — 
beam and two at top. Center bar is bent over heads of piles to take 


diagonal shear. 


‘ DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 431 


Deck reinforcement: % inch square deformed bars running longi- 
tudinally on 9 inch centers, alternate bars bent up over transverse 
girders. Under bars, 3 inches x 8 inches Clinton wire cloth fastened 
to wire cloth from girders. Steel and cover the same. 


(e) Mix 1:2:4. Wet enough to flow around reinforcement. 


(f) Forms: Wood T. & G. lumber. Great difficulty was experienced with 
girder forms, and it was practically impossible to get them watertight, 
as bottom of form was in salt water and width of girder the same as 
pile. Placing was started when tide was lowest and the bottom third 
of girders filled first. Usually a day’s run was three transverse girders 
with corresponding longitudinal girders. Construction joints were left 
at centers of outside girders. Diagonal joint was used (about 45° to 
horizontal). Lower foot and half of joint exposed to salt water. 

No gunite was used on joints. Laitance was removed. 
Deck was poured without difficulty, construction joint left center 
between bents. 


(g) Curing: Lower part of girders in salt water continuously after pour- 
ing, amount wet depending on tides. 

Deck was kept wet with water and covered with canvas for about two 
days after placing. 

(h) Present Conditions: Immediately after stripping some of the girder 
forms it was found that the lower 6 inches contained practically no 
cement; the reinforcement was exposed in each case. These places were 
repaired by building a water-tight box around the lower part of the 
girder and after the defective concrete had been removed it was filled 
with fresh concrete rich in cement. 

No overloading has been noted, although several fine cracks have 
appeared in the deck, which are probably due to shrinkage or improper 
curing. 


SANTO DOMINGO 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND CONDITIONS. 


— 


There are three separate and distinct concrete structures in the inner 
harbor. None exist in the outer harbor. 

Structure “A,” located on west side of river, is a reinforced concrete 
quay 31 feet wide by 1,361 feet long and 4 feet above mean low tide, 
supported on precast concrete piles. Upper end about 3,000 feet above 
mouth of river. 

Constructed in i918. 

Four piles each bent on 10-foot centers, bents 10 feet center to center. 
Reinforcing of piles carried into girders. One row piles 16 feet, two rows 
30 feet, and one row 35 feet long each bent. 


Girders: Transverse girders 12 inches x 26 inches deep. Outside longi- 
tudinal girder 10 inches x 26 inches deep. Two interior longitudinal girders 
10 inches x 20 inches deep and two 8 inches x 16 inches deep, supporting 
3 foot 6 inch gauge industrial railway track. Lower edge girders at mean 
high water level. 

Deck: Originally constructed with creosoted yellow pine deck on 8 inch 
x 12 inch stringers. Wood deck at upper end of wharf replaced for 230 feet 
of length in 1920, with 9 inch reinforced concrete slab. 

Fender System: 3 pieces 8 inches x 12 inches creosoted yellow pine with 
spacers between. Lower fender attached to piles. 

Structure “B,” located on west side of river, is reinforced concrete quay 
wall, 6 feet wide, 420 feet long and 5 feet deep, of solid concrete set on 
precast concrete piles with reinforced concrete ties extending shoreward. 
This structure joins to lower end of structure “A.” 

Deck: 4 feet above mean low tide. Constructed in 1913. 

Piles: Precast octagonal, 14 inches in diameter, extending 4 feet into 
bulkhead; set in two longitudinal rows 3 feet 4 inches ec. Outer row 2 feet 
cc., inner row 3 feet cc.; piles 40 feet long. 

Ties: Reinforced 1 foot 9 inches x 2 feet in cross section, extending back 
54 feet from face of bulkhead to a mass of concrete 4 feet x 5 feet x 2 feet 


432 HARBOR REPORTS 


deep, enclosing heads of three concrete piles 20 feet long. Ties spaced 21 
feet cc. 


Filling: Space back of wall filled flush with top of wall with ashes, earth, 
rock, etc., retained below water line in front by large broken coral rock, 
placed against inside face of piles. 


Structure “C,’”’ located on east side of river, is a reinforced concrete 
quay wall of same type as “B,” but using Chenoweth piles. It is located at 
mouth of river and acts also as a breakwater. It is 780 feet in length, the 
outer end turns back shoreward at an angle of 45° till it meets the beach, 
a distance of 150 feet. Deck 4 feet above mean low tide. 


Practically no wave or abrasive action on structures “A” and “B” and 
for about three-quarters of the length of “C.” Outer end of “C,” however, 
is subjected to wave action and is constantly covered with spray. Climate 
hot during the day but cool and moist at night. Southeasterly trade winds 
prevail during day with land breezes at night. 


PRECAST PILES. : 
(a) Type: There are two types of precast concrete piles used. 
1. Octagonal, 14 inches in diameter, ranging in length from 16 feet 


to 40 feet; driven in place between Aug. 15, 1912, and Jan. 31, 
1918; used in structures “A” and “B.” 


2. Chenoweth type, 14 inches in diameter; other data unknown; used 
in structure “CC.” 


(b) Exposed length varies. Maximum of about 16 feet, with average of — 
about 14 feet on outside piles, in structures “A” and “B.” Same for — 
structure “‘C,” except at outer end, where maximum exposure is about 
8 feet. Exposure between mean low and mean high water of about one 
foot. No exposure above mean high water, due to fact that heads of 
piles extend into concrete girders and bulkhead, which are placed with 
lower edge at mean high water. 


(c) Materials: Aggregate, broken coral rock and river sand from Isabella 
River. Aggregate free from salt and not exposed to salt water before 
used. Sharp sand well graded from small to fairly large grains, con- 
tains small amount of salt. Mixing water from nearby springs, slightly 
brackish. Brand and quality of cement unknown. 


(d) Reinforcement: Octagonal piles eight %4-inch bars; other data un- 
known. 
Chenoweth piles, no existing data, this work having been done by con- 
tract in 1910. Probably standard for this class of piles. 
(e) Concrete mix: Unknown. 
(f) Curing: Octagonal pile, Structure “A,” maximum age 155 days, mini- — 
mum (two only) 88 days; average 67 days. 
Octagonal piles, structure “B,” maximum age 67 days, minimum (two 
only) 10 days; average age 26 days. 
Chenoweth piles, structure “C,” no data. 
No other data on curing. 


(zg) Handling: No data other than in (f), 0.5 per cent of piles broken by 
handling in structures “A” and “B.” 


(h) Driving: Structure “A,” both steam and drop hammer. 
Weight of hammers, steam 5600 pounds, drop 4800 pounds; average ~ 
number of blows per pile, steam 391, drop 22. 

Structure “B,” drop hammer used, weight 4800 pounds; average blows 
per pile 48. 1.8 per cent of piles broken during driving in both struc- 
tures. Structure “C,’’ Chenoweth piles, no data. 


(i) Present condition: Octagonal piles: Concrete appears to be in very 
good condition near water line and above, though it is badly spalled 
and broken in two or three cases, and reinforcing exposed. This at 
points where heads of piles are embedded in girders, structure “A,” 
and caused from shocks when quay has been rammed by ships, or piles 
settling. Piling on outer line has settled about 8 inches in two places 
on structure “A.” Settled at one place, structure “B,” for a distance 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 433 


of about 50 feet, maximum settlement 1 foot. Settled one place, struc- 
ture “C,” for a distance of about 35 feet, maximum settlement 1 foot. 
Condition of piling at point of settlement not inspected below water 
line, hence condition not known. At other points along dock where 
there has been occasion for divers to work, they have reported piles in 
good condition. Wire mesh reinforcing of Chenoweth piles exposed in 
many places, but considering length of service (12 years) piles are in 
remarkably good condition. Reinforcing rusted but very little. 


DiSKS AND SUPERSTRUCTURES; GIRDERS, ARCHES, BEAMS, SLABS, WALLS. 


(a) 
(b) 


(c) 
(d) 


(e) 


(f) 
(g) 
(h) 


Reinforced girders of varying sizes, see above. 


Exposure: Mean high tide level with bottom largest girders. 
Practically no wave action or spray. 

In structure “C” outer end constantly exposed to wave action,;-average 
wave height at this point being about two feet. 


Materials: See precast piles. 


Reinforcement: Quay section; structure “A”; girders (three 1-inch 
square bars in bottom of outside longitudinal girders, one bent up over 
heads of piles, six % inch stirrups; four 1-inch square bars in bottom of 
transverse girders, two bent up over heads of piles, six %-inch stir- 
rups). Three 1-inch bars bottom interior girder, two bent up over piles, 
four %-inch stirrups. Bars supposed to be from 1% inches to 2 inches 
from the face of concrete. In some cases bars touched forms and are 
now exposed. 

Quay wall section, Structure “B.’—Six l-inch bars exterior face and 
six l-inch bars interior face longitudinal, 14-inch ties, four 11-inch 
longitudinal bars in back ties running to piles on shore. Other data 
unknown. 

Quay wall section, structure “C,” no data. 

Deck Slab: 9 inches concrete, placed in 1920; 44-inch square rods 5 
inches cc., placed longitudinally and bent up over beams. 

Wire cloth mesh, 3 inches x 8 inches of No. 8 and No. 10 galvanized 
wire, also used. 

All reinforcing bars 2 inches from face of concrete. Wire cloth 1 inch 
from face of slab. 


Mix: In girders, unknown. Bulkhead, 1:3:5, structure “B.” 


Structure “C,” unknown. Deck slab, unknown. 
Forms: Wood; other data unknown. 


Curing: Unknown. 


Present Condition: Structure “A,” deck slab appears to be in very good 
condition, considering class of workmanship and materials available. 
A few cracks have appeared, but they are probably due largely to 
settlement. Construction joints are tight. No spalling or pitting of 
concrete due to weathering noticeable. However, the concrete has been 
in place only since 1920-1921, and it is yet too early to form an opinion 
of the effects of weathering. 

Only the outside longitudinal girders have been inspected for this 
report. In four places the girder is badly broken, the concrete having 
fallen away in quite large pieces, exposing the reinforcement, which 
is badly rusted. These failures ‘are due to shocks received when quay 
has been rammed by steamers. There are also many places along the 
lower side of the girders, where concrete has been sheared off up to the 
reinforcing bars, leaving the steel exposed. In all cases the steel is 
badly rusted. These failures are due to the bending of the lower timber 
fender, when ships are being warped to berth. The upper edge of 
fender in most cases comes about 2 inches above lower edge of girder, 
thereby causing concrete to shear off when fender is bent. This is 
merely a matter of design and may be corrected by raising or lower- 
ing fenders. 

There are a number of places where reinforcing has not been properly 
embedded, the result being rusting of same and spalling of concrete. 
This is especially true of the stirrups, nearly all of which are exposed, 
are now rusted away and useless. The concrete in girders appears to 


434 HARBOR REPORTS 


be as dense as it is possible to obtain with aggregate used. Little 
weathering, even at the water line, is noticeable, other than that due 
to spalling of concrete due to improper placement of steel, Ail defects 
observed can be remedied in future structures by a few changes in 
design and more thorough inspection during construction. 
Structure “B.” This structure presents two failures. For about 50 feet 
of length, near the centers, the bulkhead has settled one foot. Con- 
dition of piling underneath unknown. Large cracks have appeared at 
center and ends of section failed. The other failure is at end of pier, 
where it was heavily rammed by a naval barge. Section of wall, about 
20 feet long, broken off and separated from main structure by crack 
of about an inch. The concrete appears to be of good quality, consider- 
ing material used. Little spalling noticeable except where reinforce- 
ment, in a few cases, has been placed too close to face of structure. 
Top of wall apparently covered after construction with an inch layer of 
mortar. This has weathered badly and come off in large pieces. 
Structure “C.” This is the oldest structure in the harbor, having been 
built in 1910 by a firm of American contractors. It is also the most 
exposed to action by the elements and is in the poorest condition as 
far as general appearance is concerned. There is one failure due to © 
settlement of piling, but the remainder of the structure appears to be 
sound. As before mentioned, the outer end is subjected to almost 
constant wave action, waves at times being 5 feet in height, but there 
is no visible failure at this point, and the concrete appears to be in 
fairly good condition. There is a good deal of spalling of concrete, 
with consequent exposure of reinforcing. In every case this is due to 
improper placement of the reinforcing, the embedment at time of 
construction not having over % inch at these points. The concrete, too, 
- appears to be greatly inferior to that in structures “A” and “B.” 
Chipping and spalling of mortar placed on top of wall has occurred 
in same manner as in structure “B.” 


PUERTO PLATA 


The new wharf is all concrete construction resting on concrete piles. It 
was built in 1917-18 by the Leonard Construction Company under contract. 
The floor being only 6 feet above mean tide, the under parts especially are 
exposed to wave and mist action. 


PRECAST PILES. 
(a) Piles used were of 14-inch octagonal section. 


(b) Length of pile exposed to salt water is 20 feet, between low and high 
water is 3 to 4 feet and above high water 5 feet. 


(c) Conerete materials were cement, screenings and broken limestone 
gauged with fresh water. Cement was standard American Portland 
Cement. 


(d) Reinforcement was eight *4-inch twisted bars and %-inch rod spirally 
wound with a 9-inch pitch. 


(e) Concrete mixture was in the proportion of 1:2:3. 
(f) Piles were cured forty days before moving. 
(g) Driven by steam hammer and jet. 


(h) Present condition of piles between low water and top of piles shows 
checks and cracks due to expansion of reinforcement, outer surface 
of piles is stained with oxides from the steel. On many piles large 
chips have been broken off due to this cause. 


POURED IN PLACE CYLINDERS. ; 
(a) The old wharf rests on cylinders, poured in place. 
Steel cylinders %-inch thick, 4 feet in diameter. 
Placed about the year 1895. No data as to construction methods. 
(b) Exposure of 6 feet above low water. 
(c) Present condition shows steel cylinders practically rusted away above 
low water with little apparent damage to concrete filling. 


PORTO RICO 435 


DECK AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 


(a) On the new wharf the concrete piles are capped with reinforced con- 
crete beams which support a floor slab. 


(b) Floor is 6 feet above mean tide. 

(c) Concrete materials: Cement, sand, and broken stone, in the proportion 
1:2:4. 

(d) Beams reinforced with five %-inch twisted bars and %-inch stirrups; 
floor 101% inches thick and reinforced with 5-inch twisted bars spaced 
6 inches, transverse rods of %-inch twisted steel spaced 18 inches. 


(e) A 1:2:4 mixture was used. 
(f) Forms were of wood and watertight. 
(g) Forms were kept in place seven days. 


(h) Beams and floor slabs have suffered no damage other than slight cracks 
at junction of pile and beams. 


Conclusions 


Shipworm attack in all harbors is heavy and all piles should be protected. 

While the test blocks do not show a continuous attack throughout the 
year of any one species, there are so many species present with an apparent 
difference in their period of activity that the attack may be considered of 
uniform intensity throughout the year. 

The concrete structures reported are generally not old enough to show 
much deterioration, but they do contain lessons for the designer and the 
contractor. 


PORTO RICO 
General Description 


Porto Rico lies within the limits of strong northeast trades, which when 
not disturbed by atmospheric depression, blow with great regularity dur- 
ing the entire year, varying in direction between northeast and southeast. 
There are occasional heavy gales during the hurricane season, July to 
October. The mean monthly temperature at San Juan varies from 75° to 
81.3° Fahr. in February and August respectively. The water at San Juan 
is of full ocean salinity and temperatures recorded by the Corps of En- 
gineers, U. S. A., ranged from 77° to 85° Fahr. in March and July, 1923, 
respectively. In general there is a narrow bank of soundings close to the 
island from the edge of which the bottom pitches off rapidly to great depths. 

San Juan harbor (Fig. 160), 30 miles west of Cape San Juan, is about 3 
miles long in a southeasterly direction, by from °*4 to 1144 miles wide, the 
southwestern portion being occupied by extensive shoals. The northern 
side of the harbor is formed by San Juan Island, on the southern slope of 
which is situated the city of San Juan. The channel at the entrance has a 
depth of 35 feet and a width of about 250 yards; along the southwest front 
of the city the depth is 30 feet or more and the width about 150 yards and 
along the southeast part the width is about 350 yards and the depths vary 
from 22 to 32 feet. The range of tide is about 1.1 feet. 

Port Arecibo (Fig. 161), 33 miles west of San Juan harbor, is an open 
bight formed by a recession of the coast about 1% mile on the west side of 
Point Morrillos, and into the eastern end of which flows the Arecibo River 
with a depth of 3 feet over the bar. 

Mayaguez Bay (Fig. 162), on the west coast of the island, lies between 
Point Algarrobo on the north and Point Guanajibo on the south, a distance 
of about 334 miles and is about 2 miles in greatest length inside the shoals 


436 HARBOR REPORTS 


which extend across the mouth of the bay. Two channels lead into the bay; 
the principal one entering between Inner Manchas and Manchas Grande 
shoals has a width of 3% mile and a depth of from 48 to 60 feet; the other 
leads into the bay from the northward and has a least width of 1 mile and 
depths of 18 feet or more. The tidal currents at the entrance have an 
estimated velocity of about 1 mile at strength. The Custom House landing 
at the city of Mayaguez has depths of 3 to 4 feet at its end. 

Ponce Harbor (Fig. 163), on the south coast, is the eastern portion of 
an open bay 3 miles wide between Point Carenero on the east and Point 


yy 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
SAN JUAN HARBOR 
PORTO RICO 1923 


Fic. 160 


Cuchara on the west. The harbor is about 1 mile long and % mile wide 
with depths of about 8 fathoms at the southern end, decreasing gradually 
towards the northern shore. Port Ponce is on the northeast side of the 
harbor and has several small lighterage piers. The municipal pier, at which 
there is a depth of 25 feet at mean low water, is located at Point Penoncillo. 

Fajardo Harbor (Fig. 164), on the east coast, is about 3 miles south of 
Cape San Juan. The harbor is about 1% mile in diameter. 


Marine Borers 
Past History—Both molluscan and crustacean borers are present in 


PORTO RICO A37 


Porto Rican waters and, on account of the slight variation in temperature 
(75° to 90° Fahr.), were thought to be active throughout the year. The 
U. S. Army Engineers estimate the life of untreated timber to be from 144 
to 2 years. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards installed were: 


Bottom of | Bottom of 


Department Date Board to | Board to 

Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
RAM MATATL See AE Cicily. sicsne sce a eee tA =O is cas PATINIG cae Riis ee tana: Oct.21, 1922 0.0 10.0 
“SEOUL STNE ES, Saas OO ae a Ole Lachthouse service... |) Dec. 20, 1922 oo... of leet 
AC Ay a a ae a L-9-2..... iighthouse Service...) Deen4. 19227) | .oe... W) sees 
1 SNAG iat Ae a Ree L-9-3..... ightnouse services a. ec.o, L922) ea ane 
[STG Ct ee OR Devote. Lagshthouse seryices,..| Deco4y1922 ht sc” peas oe 


The inspection of the test blocks gave the following information: 


A-37—About 50 shipworms, too young to identify, were found in the 
first block from this board—removed November 15. This number increased 
rapidly, the second block containing 100, the third 200 more or less and the 
fourth and succeeding blocks being well filled with specimens. The species 
identified were Teredo sps. D, F, G, Teredo portoricensis, Teredo sp. Q, 
Teredo johnsoni and Bankia sp. V. A new board (1923 model), was in- 
stalled March 10, 19238, and the old test specimen was gone over in detail 
with the object in view of determining the end of the season of activity. 
_ There was found to have occurred no trace of a dormant period, during 
which attempts at boring by Teredo ceased—a condition differing radically 
from that in other Atlantic and Gulf waters where a distinct season of 
inactivity has been determined. It was established that the larve of Teredo 
sp. G, Teredo portoricensis and Teredo johnsoni were active as late as the 
latter part of February; those of Teredo sp. D the first of February, and 
those of Bankia sp. V and Teredo sp. Q as late as December 1. | 

A few shipworm embryos appeared on block 1 of the new board, removed 
April 5, the number increasing rapidly in succeeding blocks. 

Limnoria action on some of the blocks was severe. Specimens of Mar- 
tesia were at times numerous. The associated organisms were Bryozoa, 
Balanus, Ostrea and Algae. 


L-9-1—The first shipworm (Teredo sp. G) appeared on block 4, removed 
February 23. Block 6, removed March 23, contained about 50 specimens; 
blocks 7, 9 and 10 were free from life of any kind; blocks 8, 11 and 12, a 
few dead specimens, and block 13 and succeeding blocks were completely 
filled with specimens of Teredo sp. G, the longest tubes noted being 75 to 
100 mm. The last block examined was removed October 8. Aside from a 
_ few calcareous worm tubes, no evidence of other organisms was noted. 


L-9-2—One specimen of Teredo sp. G was found on block 2, removed 
January 15, 1923. The number increased to 50 in block 3 (the longest 
tubes being 50 mm.), and succeeding blocks contained from one to several 
hundred specimens, ranging in length from 75 mm. (block 4) to 150 mm. 
(block 19). With the exception of occasional specimens of Bankia sp. V all 
_shipworms examined were Teredo sp. G. Associated organisms were 
 Balanus, Bryozoa (Bugula and Lepralia), and Ostrea. From 20 to 100 
- specimens of Martesia appeared on some of the blocks. 


438 HARBOR REPORTS 


L-9-3—-Block 2 was the only one received from this board. This con- 
tained a few shipworm embryos, two of which were examined. These 
proved to be Teredo sp. G. 

L-9-4—Block 2, removed February 16, contained 3 specimens of Teredo 
sp. G, 8 mm. in length. Block 3, removed two weeks later, was well filled 


NAUTICAL MILE 
4 Fy ' 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
PORT ARECIBO 
PORTO RICO 


Pra. 16% 


RAE ia LCA Nelle hE Nite ER RNR RN Sta, te. Snag) canbe tad ee 


with shipworms, the majority being Teredo sp. G of 50 mm. in length. 
Other species identified were Teredo sp. Q, Teredo portoricensis, Teredo 
johnsoni, Teredo clappi, Teredo sp. D and Teredo sp. F. The succeeding 
blocks were all well filled with shipworms, those of Teredo sp. G con- 
tinuing to greatly outnumber other species till block 12 was reached. I 
blocks 12 to 24 (removed September 17 and the last one examined) speci: 


PORTO RICO 439 


mens of Teredo clappi were far more numerous than those of the other 
species. Limnoria action was severe at times. Associated organisms were 
Bryozoa and Balanus. 

In addition to the regular block inspection, a section of a creosoted pile 


STATUTE MILES 


NAUTICAL MILES 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
MAYAGUEZ BAY 

PORTO RICO 


Fig. 162 


from Pier 1, San Juan, was examined in which were found specimens of 
Teredo atwoodi and Martesia. 

Chemical analyses of the water of San Juan Harbor at the Naval Station 
were made by the Insular Health Department, the results of which are 
shown in the table on page 441. 


Methods of Protection 

Creosote Impregnation—This method of protection has been in general 
use but has proved unsatisfactory. Sixty out of 1123 creosoted piles (19 
pounds treatment) in Pier 2 of the New York and Porto Rico Steamship 
Co., San Juan, were completely destroyed by marine borers after 5 years’ 
service. A similar experience was had with the creosoted sheet piling used 
to form the concrete dock wall at the Naval Station. Creosoted piles pro- 


Sp ee 
tera 


HARBOR REPORTS 


4A() 


o31a OLHOd 
HOaguvVH GFINOd 
qaguvod LSaL 
40 NOLLVIO'TI SNIMOHS dvWw 


€9T “S14 


Same LHO0d 


SOSVvA 
SJIIN TIVOILNYN 


PORTO RICO 441 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
FAJARDO HARBOR 
‘PORTO RICO 1923 


NAUTICAL MILES 
° é 4 3 3 Fy 3 ’ 


Fic, 164 


ANALYSIS OF WATER OF SAN JUAN HARBOR 


Dissolved Oxygen Hydrogen-ion Temperature Fah- 
Date CL parts per 1000 | parts per 1,000,000 Concentration renheit (degrees) 
1923 

March 17. 20.85 5.79 8.4 77 
ADIL Sete os Ace 20.50 5.40 8.4 81 
a\j 01 gil lees OF rae deans 19.95 6.18 Se 82 
Te ie al le ee 19.15 2.65 So 82 
IVER Vse Ore ea ee sass 19.45 3.43 8.5 86 
TWIKI? OAC ori 20.05 3.24 8.5 84 
Vey de Par veteanse cites’. PA vss 5.01 8.5 85 
PAO RD Mite wis sas 2% Suns Aik a Ds 9.82 8.5 84 
DINED topes te hiee 4; 20.45 5.69 Sad 84 
ROOT Mey toise ack s:< 21.45 4.41 8.5 82 
NeW Sakis oe tus... 6 21.45 4.42 8.5 83 
PIM OU ies Wadia ses pao! PAN tS, 4.61 8.5 84 
NLGrOO hts st. gas se 19.95 3.53 8.5 85 
SL VION Met take. jail. 5 2115 4.42 8.5 85 
“URL ae LS Cert aes 20.95 4.52 8.5 85 
ENV Ra D Ti Ie ice een 19.95 3.53 8.5 84 


442 HARBOR REPORTS 


tected by felt and sheet copper at the Lighthouse Depot, San Juan, lasted 
15 years, but at the end of that time were completely riddled by borers. The 
San Antonio Docks of the New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., San 
Juan, are of the marginal type, creosoted sheet piling and fill, with creo- 
soted fender piles. According to the Lighthouse Service, the entire creo- 
soted portion is infested with shipworms and rapid destruction is in prog- 
ress. Piles treated with 20 pounds per cubic foot of creosote and driven in a 
wharf at San Juan in 1902 were damaged by Limnoria to a depth of 11% 
inches in 18 months’ time. 

Two specimens of treated piles from San Juan were inspected by the 
committee’s biologist and later chemically analyzed by Mr. Sumner R. 
Church of the Barrett Company’s Laboratory with the results shown on 
page 124. 


Armor—Copper sheathed piles were used in the Lighthouse Depot Pier, 
as noted above. No records of the kind and thickness of the metal are 
available. Pier 5, San Juan, was built in 1912 on timber piles encased in 
concrete with iron cylinders over all. The engineer depot pier at San Juan 
was built in 1921 on timber piles encased in concrete with steel cylinders 
over all. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Metal—There is no record of structures in Porto Rican waters built on 
cast or wrought iron piles. 


Concrete—A number of concrete structures have been built, but con- 
struction records are lacking. 


Conclusions 


The investigations confirm the belief that marine borers, both shipworms 
and crustacean borers, are active throughout the entire year, and no period 
of immunity can therefore be expected in these waters as is the case in 
Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico harbors. 

Timber impregnated with creosote does not have a satisfactory service 
record and, judging from the records and specimens available, is not ap- 
parently an economical method of protection. 

Armor of cast iron would seem to offer the surest means of protection, 
though considering the comparatively low labor costs, it is possible that 
“scupper” nailing would also be an economical method. 

The good record of wrought iron and cast iron in Florida waters justifies 
the consideration of these materials for important structures. 

Records of concrete construction are not in sufficient detail to be included 
in this report. 


CANAL ZONE 

Water Conditions 
Temperature, salinity and other characteristics of the water at Balboa 
Harbor, Mirafiores Lake, Gatun Lake and Limon Bay are listed in the table 
compiled in the office of the Governor of the Canal Zone shown on the follow- 
ing page. 


CANAL ZONE 


443 


TEMPERATURE, SALINITY AND OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WATER AT BALBOA 
HARBOR, MIRAFLORES LAKE, GATUN LAKE AND LIMON BAY 


Name of Panama Bay Miraflores Gatun Caribbean Sea 
Body Balboa Harbor Lake Lake Limon Bay 
Kind Salt Brackish Fresh Salt 

Degree salinity | Flood tide......1.019| Wet season — 100 to} 6 to 12 parts per mil-| Aver. 1.020 

DW tIGGs... . ss 1.022} 200 per million. lion. 
Dry season — 300 to 
400 per million. 

Temperature From 80 deg. F to 61} Av. 84 deg. F. From 89 deg. F. to 80] From 87 deg. F. to 77 
deg.—Av. 80 deg. deg. F. Av. 84 deg.| deg. F.—Av. 82 deg. 
F. Coldest in March. F. 

Purity Clear. Slight contami-| Clear. No contamina-| Clear. Silt in solution} Clear. Slight contami- 
nation about docks,| tion except silt from} in Gaillard cut due] nation of oil and 
of oil and small} dredges working in| to dredges. wastes at docks. 
wastes. Lake. 

idea ts | Max. range....... 21’) None Up to .25’ due to N.| Max. range...... 2’ .0 

Ave range o.)s. 2%. or winds. Av aTaAn@en ae cies 0’.9 

Currents Tidal—From 0 to 1.0] Very slight current at| Slight current when} Very slight — More 

knot. times. freshets occur and| outside breakwater 
Gatun Spillway] as per pilot charts. 
operates. — 

Depth, ete. 1 to 60’ deep—No real] 1 to 45’ deep; rain| 1 to 95’. Rain squalls} 1 to 50’—rain squalls 


—occasional waves 
outside breakwater 
from northers. 


storms; wave action 
not pronounced. 


squalls only; no real] only; waves 3’. 


waves. 


Marine Borers 


Past History—Marine borers, both crustacean and molluscan, are con- 
stantly present in the terminal waters and certain other portions of the 
Canal, with no seasonal differences in activity noted up to the date of these 
investigations. Species as follows have been identified by Mr. James Zetek, 
specialist in tropical entomology, Canal Zone: 


Family Pholadidae 


Pholas chiloensis Molina 
Parapholas acuminata Conrad 
Barnea crucigera Sowerby 
Pholadidae tubifera Sowerby 
Jouannetia pectinata Conrad 
Martesia curta Sowerby 
Martesia xylophaga Valenciennes 
Xylotomea globosa Sowerby 


Family Teredinidae 


Bankia (Neobankia) zeteki Bartsch 
Teredo (Neoteredo) miraflora Bartsch 
Teredo (Teredora) panamensis Bartsch 


The Teredinidae are all wood borers; the Pholadidae burrow into rocks 
and the three last named attack wood. The rapid destruction by shipworms 
of the greenheart timber (hitherto supposed to be immune from marine 


444 HARBOR REPORTS 


borer attack) used in*the locks, is an indication of the intensity of shipworm 
activity which is encountered in these waters. 


Mr. James Zetek reports (April 29, 1923), on an inspection of piles re- 
moved from the Paraiso, in part as follows: 


“On the deck of the Ajax were four pilings that were pulled the day 
previous; of these three were creosoted. No live Teredos were found ir 
these, but the examination was not very thorough. It was thought best 
to devote most time to such piles as showed Teredos. In the untreated 
pile was found one burrow, but the animal had died long ago and the 
burrow had no trace of it any more. This burrow was almost straight, 
the only deviation being near a knot. It was 19 inches long, and followed 
the grain of the wood, the anterior (head end, which has the bivalve shell) 
end lowermost and below the mud line. At this head end it was 1 inch in 
diameter. At 11 inches from this point it was % inch in diameter. At a 
point 3 inches from the posterior (tail end) end it was 7/16 inch in 
diameter, and rapidly narrowed to the minute opening in the side of the 
piling. The anterior end was 3% inches inward and 10 inches below the 
mud line. The extreme posterior part, where it turned abruptly to the 
surface of the piling, was 2% inches from the surface. 


“Two more pilings were pulled up the 26th instant from the upper end 
of the dock. Both were non-creosoted. One of these did not appear to 
have any Teredos. The other one had many of them and some burrows 
with no animals present. We obtained four Teredos entire. 


“In every case the animal worked downward (positive geotropic). The 
reason for this is very plain. The very early stage of the Teredo is free- 
swimming, and its future development depends on the ability of this stage 
to become attached to the wood piling and start its burrow inward. This 
entrance is of extreme importance to the Teredo because just back of it is 
the posterior end of the mollusk, with its pallets and siphons. These two 
siphons (inhalent and exhalent) are the means by which the animal re- 
ceives water, and after using it for respiration and for such microscopic 
food as it contains is able again to void it: Hence these openings must be 
between the mud line and the water line. The rest of the animal must 
find room elsewhere; if Teredos are extremely abundant this downward 
extension is not so evident. 


“The four Teredos measured 6 inches, 15 inches, 20 inches and 21 inches 
in length. This was after they were about 2 hours in preservative and it 
is quite probable they had become contracted a few inches. In one of these, 
measured in the field, this contraction actually took place and amounted 
to six (6) inches. The anterior end (which has the shell with which the 
mollusk makes its burrow) was from % to 1 inch in diameter. 


“The posterior 3 or 4 inches of the mollusk tapers rapidly and terminates 
in the spoon-shaped pallets and the two siphons. This posterior section of 
the animal is protected by a hard calcareous casing, sometimes 1/16 inch 
thick. The opening in the piling, by means of which the siphons communi- 
cate with the water, has the shape and size of the figure “8.” Sometimes 
the division is obliterated and the opening is either oval or circular. The 
caleareous lining does not cover the entire burrow, unless the wood is very 
soft and the number of Teredos large. When this lining does exist, it is 
always thickest at the posterior end. 


“As to the identity of the Teredo, I consider it to be the Neoteredo mira- 
flora of Bartsch. ‘The pallets are of this subgenus, but there is some varia- 
tion in the shell which I attribute to senility. I am sending a good specimen 
to Doctor Bartsch for confirmation of the determination. All of our mira- 
flora heretofore obtained have been much smaller in size. 


No young Teredos were found. All were mature, old specimens. As the 
piling used in the Paraiso dock came, in part, from Balboa and Cristobal, 
I am inclined to believe that some of this piling was already infested with ~ 
fairly large Teredos, and as this piling was driven into its new place with- 
out much delay, these Teredos were able to survive and continue to live 
under the new conditions in the waters about Paraiso. Very young Teredos 


CANAL ZONE 445 


are much more sensitive to changes in the environment, and I am of the 
belief that if any had been present they would have died. 


“The fact that no young ones were present would indicate that the embryos 
cannot thrive in the water of such low salinity as at Paraiso. This would 
strengthen the hypothesis that the big Teredos found were in the timbers 
when these were brought to Paraiso. 


“It may be that the young of these big Teredos move, due to the current 
caused by the lockages, to the locks where they find greater salinity and 
attack the greenheart timber of the lock sills.” 


Committee Investigations—A standard test board was maintained at 
Coco Solo (Fig. 165), under the supervision of the Public Works Officer of 
the Submarine Base. The blocks from this board were regularly examined 
and yielded results as follows: 


YD-1501—Shipworm embryos appeared in quantities lying promiscuously 
on the surface of block 1, removed December 19. The succeeding blocks were 
all well filled with shipworms, the destruction being rapid. Species were 
identified as follows: 


Teredo sp. D Teredo sp. F 
Teredo sp. Q Teredo sp. Z 
Teredo sp. G Bankia zeteki 
Teredo portoricensis Bankia sp. T 
Teredo clappi Bankia sp. V 


Individuals of Teredo sp. G, reaching a maximum length of 100 mm., at all 
times far exceeded in numbers all others, and those of Teredo sp. D and 
Teredo sp. Q attained maximum lengths of 150 mm. each. A new board of 
1923 model was substituted for the old one April 4, and original blocks 8-24 
inclusive, and replacement blocks 25-31 inclusive, were subjected to a care- 
ful examination. The results of this examination indicate that somewhere 
near the first of January the height of the season of activity is passed, and 
that shipworm embryos deposited after that date are stragglers whose 
growth is slow. The new blocks continued to show rapid destruction, all 
blocks being well filled with the exception of block 5-C, removed September 
6, after one month’s immersion, which for some undetermined reason, con- 
tained not a single specimen. Teredo sp. G maintained the numerical su- 
premacy established in the blocks of the old board. Limnoria action was 
severe at times, many of the blocks being well scarred. Martesia was often 
present in varying quantities. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, 
and Ostrea. 


An inspection, made in November 1922, of the Old Dock at La Boca, which 
was constructed by the French in 1898, disclosed the presence of rock 
borers. (Lithophaga aristata). 'These animals were found burrowing in 
the concrete. The dock is supported by concrete caissons, 5 meters in diam- 
“eter, sheathed with steel cylinders of 5 mm. thickness and entrance was 
effected at points where the steel shells had rusted through or been torn off 
by contact with some moving object. 


Field Tests—Blocks bound with iron bands and wire, spaced at inter- 
vals of from 14 to 21% inches, were submerged at Coco Solo, May 9, 1923. 
The results of these tests will be reported later. 


Salinity and temperature observations of the water at Coco Solo are shown 
on Fig. 166. 


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HARBOR REPORTS 


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448 HARBOR REPORTS 


Methods of Protection 


Creosote Impregnation—There are four finger piers on creosoted piles 
at the Submarine Base; otherwise the use of timber piles is for auxiliary 
purposes only. All piles are treated in accordance with Canal specifications 
requiring 16 pounds absorption per cubic foot and about 2 inches of penetra- 
tion. Such work is of too recent construction to afford conclusions as to the 
efficacy of this treatment. Creosoted piles (kind and quantity of treatment 
unknown) driven by the French in 1905 in the old dock at La Boca were 
found on their removal in 1918 to have been attacked by shipworms. 


Armor—Concrete. During the year 1912 an attempt was made to pro- 
tect the piling of Pier No. 3, Colon, with concrete tubes in four-foot lengths 
which were slipped over the piles, the annular space being filled with grout. 
This did not pass the experimental stage as the replacement of pile struc- 
tures with concrete was already under way. At Fort De Lesseps, Colon, 
another type of pile was used in 1916. Old 20-inch dredge pipe was placed 
over the piles after driving and the intervening space filled with concrete. 
No report of its present condition is at hand. 


Armor—Metal. Cypress piles (12 inches square), sheathed with cop- 
per, were installed by the French in Old Pier 4, Colon. On removal it was 
found that most of them were in excellent condition. Where the sheathing 
had been torn off or broken, it was found that the action of salt water had 
formed copper chloride which in turn had soaked into the timber. The 
shipworms attacked the center of these piles but those portions containing 
copper chloride were untouched. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Metal—Two of the old piers at Cristobal, Nos. 3 and 5, were supported 
on 5-inch wrought iron screw piles exposed to salt water for a length of 
from 15 to 25 feet. These had good substantial cores when pulled. The 
steel girders supporting the concrete floor of the Old French Dock at La Boca 
are exposed to the salt spray and are at present badly rusted and pitted. 
All protected steel is in good condition. At Coco Solo metal is used on water- 
front structures only for fittings such as manhole frames, covers, bolts, etc., 
black and galvanized wrought iron pipes, and cast iron pipes. The exposed 
metal is, in general, covered with bitumastic enamel. Numerous wrought 
iron pipes, both black and enamel, where not available for frequent inspec- 
tions have become unfit during the past 5 years. On the other hand, cast 
iron shows little, if any, deterioration. 


Concrete—Accurate and detailed descriptions of the concrete struc- 
tures of the Cana! Zone, the methods and materials employed in their con- 
struction are to be found in the publicly issued reports of the Canal Com- 
mission. All such structures are said to be in good condition. 


PACIFIC ISLANDS 
General Description 


The harbors included in this report are Honolulu, Pearl Harbor, Nawili- 
wili, Hawaiian Territory; Tutuila, Samoa, and Cavite, Philippine Islands. 

In general the Hawaiian Islands all lie within the path of the northeast 
trade winds which prevail throughout the year with interruptions, during © 
the winter months, by variable winds, or by “Konas,” the local name for 


PACIFIC ISLANDS 449 


strong southerly or southwesterly winds, the latter lasting from a few hours 
to two or three days and attended by rain. The streams may be classed as 
mountain torrents and few are navigable for small boats. Rainfall varies 
greatly under the influence of winds and mountains, and in general occurs 
on the windward side of the islands and during the winter months. The 
average tides vary from 1 to 2 feet and the tidal currents are considered to 
be negligible. 

Honolulu Harbor (Fig. 167), the most important port of the islands, is 
entered through a coral reef, the channel being °s mile long and 400 feet 


NAUTICAL MILES 
3 


MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 
TEST BOARDS 
OAHU 
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


G&/ HONOLULU 
Ny 


Kane 
Srey {5 
« 


Hie. 167 


wide. The harbor is about 14 mile long and 1,000 to 2,000 feet wide. Both 
the harbor and channel have been dredged to a depth of 35 feet. The depths 
alongside the principal wharves are from 20 to 35 feet. 


Pearl Harbor, sometimes known as the Pearl Lochs, is situated on the 
southern coast of the Island of Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, about 7 miles 
southwest of Honolulu. Pearl Harbor is just within the tropics, its geo- 
graphical position being latitude 21° 21’ North, longitude 157° 57’ West. 
The harbor is almost completely landlocked, consisting of a number of 
“lochs” separated by low coral rock peninsulas and having one narrow and 
somewhat tortuous channel to sea which has been straightened and deepened 
by dredging. The minimum depth in the channel is 35 feet at mean low 
water. No ocean swells are felt in the harbor, the roughest water experi- 


450 HARBOR REPORTS 


enced in the lochs being no more than a “harbor chop.” The water in the 
harbor is clear sea water, the salinity and clarity varying but little except 
when occasional heavy rains in the mountainous region, draining into the 
harbor, cause a reduction in the salt content and the presence of a noticeable 
amount of silt for a few days. Such rains do not occur more than once or 
twice a year. There is little sewage pollution except in the immediate 
vicinity of the Navy Yard, and there is no serious pollution from chemical 
wastes. The water in the vicinity of the Navy Yard is always more or less 
seriously polluted with oil from oil-burning vessels and submarines. The 
following table gives certain pertinent data on the water at Pearl Harbor: 


Degree of salinity: (No seasonal change. ) 
Maximum 25.6 parts per thousand of total solids. 
Minimum 20.2 parts per thousand of total solids. 
Average 23.0 parts per thousand of total solids. 
Temperature: 
Maximum 88° Fahr. 
Minimum 74° Fahr. 
Average 81° Fahr. 
Maxima occur in July, August and September, and minima in Janu- 
ary, February and March. 
Tides: 


Maximum range 3 feet. 
Average range 2 feet. 
Currents: 
Tidal—maximum 2 knots. 
Depth: 
Channel, 35 feet at mean low water. 
Maximum depth in deep pockets in entrance channel 138 feet. 
Storms: 
Occur only in winter months and are infrequent. 
Nawiliwili Bay (Fig. 168), at the southeast end of the Island of Kauai, is 
about %4 mile wide between Ninini Point and Carter Point, and indents the 
coast about % mile. The depth at the wharf at Nawiliwili village is 4 feet. 


Pago Pago Bay, Samoa, a direct inlet from the Pacific, is of ocean salinity. 
The water is generally clear but receives some sewage. The average range 


of tide is 3.6 feet; the average temperature 78° Fahr. The maximum velocity — 
of tidal currents is estimated to be about 2 miles. There are depths in the — 


bay ranging from 6 to 180 feet. The bay is exposed to the trade winds, but 
not to hurricanes as a rule, which generally come from the north and west. 


Waves 8 feet high were observed in 1916, but ordinarily thas are prac- — 


tically no waves. 
Cavite, Philippine Islands, the site of the United Staten Navy Yard, is 


about 744 miles southwest of Manila. The harbor is formed by a low pen- — 
insula, the northern extremity of which, Sangley Point, is reported to be 


extending at the rate of 35 feet per year. 


Marine Borers 
Past History—Marine borers were known to be present constantly in 


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PACIFIC ISLANDS 


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452 HARBOR REPORTS 


all the waters included in this report, and up to the time of these investiga- 
tions no seasonal differences in activity had been remarked. 

In the Hawaiian district untreated timber was estimated to last not to 
exceed two years—in some instances not over six months, and is therefore 
not exposed to sea water except in temporary structures. 


Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- 


lows: 
Bottom of | Bottom of 
Department Date Board to | Board to 
Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. 
(Feet) (Feet) 
Honolulu Harbor, Pier 4........ L-19-1....| Lighthouse Service...| Nov. 16, 1922 O25 20.5 
Pearl Harbor, Coaling Plant..... Y D=1401 4s Navy) eee eae ee Sept. 1, 1922 0.3 PAB tI 
Pearl Harbor, Magazine Island. .| YD-1402..| Navy...............| Sept. 1, 1922 0.5 20.3 
INawiltwill pic aaa oe oe eee ae L=19-3 Wer | ABI cc ccateeneee eee Feb. 1, 1923 Tee Top 
Tutuila, Samoa Station Wharf 
Paco Pacollarborme sees coo YD2S=1 |) Nawy- eee eee Nov,.16,, 1922) |5 0. 3c ee eee 
Cavite® Pe Ieee cae. tan see YD=1 601s) ONavy . ses seen eee April 15, 1923" Ses scenes eee 


A report of the results of the examinations of test blocks follows: 


L-19-1—Block 2, removed December 15, 1922, contained about 25 ship- 
worms too immature to identify. Block 4, removed one month later, con- 
tained about 5 specimens of Teredo parksi to the square inch, with tubes up 
to 2 cm. in length. Blocks 5 and 6 showed a similar attack, Teredo affinis 
being observed in the latter. In block 7 the attack increased to about 
three times the intensity observed in previous blocks. Teredo affinis 
was predominant in blocks 8 to 11 inclusive, somewhat diminished in num- 
bers and with tubes reaching a length of 90 mm. Teredo parksi reached a 
length of 190 mm., as observed in block 24, removed November 15, and the 
last reported. Limnoria action having become heavy in block 7, increased 
in intensity to such an extent that many of the succeeding blocks were re- 
ceived in a crumbling state. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa 
(Schizoporella), tube worms, and Corophium. 


YD-1401—A few minute shipworm punctures were observed in blocks 1 
and 2, removed September 15 and October 2, 1922, respectively. A fairly 
heavy settlement occurred on blocks 3 and 4. Blocks 5 and 6, removed No- 
vember 16, contained about 10 specimens of Teredo parksi per square inch 
of surface, the tubes in the latter reaching a length of 8 cm. A number 
of specimens were found passing from block 8 to the supporting board, the 
damage in this and succeeding blocks being severe. On May 1, 1923, a new 
test piece of 1923 model was substituted for the old one. A few punctures 
were observed in the first block, which was removed June 1. Succeeding 
blocks were well filled with Teredo parksi, with lengths of tubes up to 185 
mm. The last series reported were removed November 38, 1923. An ex- — 
amination of the old test specimen, including the remaining original (Nos. — 
16-24) and replacement blocks (25-39), leads to the following conclusions: 

The breeding season of Teredo parksi at this locality reaches its height 
in September and October (possibly earlier, as we have no data prior to the 
middle of September), progressively decreasing during the period Novem- 
ber-March, and approaching or reaching zero in April. 

Teredo parksi is predominant; Teredo affinis and Teredo diegensis occur 
in small numbers. 


OES th Bg 


tA aie Atal 


oe. eee ee 


os 


PACIFIC ISLANDS 453 


Limnoria attack on the original blocks was not especially heavy, some of 
the blocks showing but little damage. Limnoria attack on the replacement 
blocks was for some reason decidedly worse than on the original blocks. 
The surfaces of Nos. 25-30 were badly attacked and parts had crumbled. 
Kkdges of No. 27 had completely crumbled. The Teredo burrows in these 
blocks had their ends partly exposed. Limnoria attack on blocks after No. 31 
was moderate. Specimens of Martesia striata were present occasionally 
in the original blocks. There was a fairly heavy covering of Balanus, 
Bryozoa and tubeworms on all blocks originally placed. 


YD-1402—The shipworm attack on these blocks was similar to that on 
YD-1401, perhaps slightly more intense. The Limnoria attack was much 
heavier than at YD-1401. Blocks 16-24 were badly destroyed, the excava- 
tions having uncovered the Teredo burrows. The surfaces of succeeding 
blocks up to No. 32 were badly attacked. Associated organisms were the 
same as those observed on the blocks from YD-1401. The last blocks re- 
ported were removed November 30, 1923. 


The Committee received from the Public Works Officer, U. S. Naval 
Station, Pearl Harbor, Territory Hawaii, specimens of rock-boring mol- 
lusks, identified by Professor Edmonson of the University of Hawaii as 
Rocellaria lamellosa. These specimens were found in coral rock and were 
taken from the dredging for the North Quay Wall and Pier, Pearl Harbor. 


L-19-3—Shipworm punctures averaging about 5 to the square inch and 
not exceeding 2 mm. in depth, were found on block 2, removed March 1, 
19238. Block 3 was similarly affected; block 4 showed an increase in attack 
of about 100 per cent, and block 5, removed April 16, contained about five 
times the number of specimens noted in block 4. Two species were ob- 
served, viz., Teredo parksi and Teredo affinis Deshayes. Succeeding 
blocks were riddled, the destruction being practically complete. The tubes 
reached a length of 60 mm. in block 7. The last block examined was No. 
24, removed February 1, 1924. Limnoria, appearing at first in small num- 
bers, became abundant in block 14 and succeeding ones. Occasional speci- 
mens of Martesia were observed. The only associated organism reported 
was green Algae. 


YD-S-1—Shipworm punctures were observed on block 1, removed De- 
cember 1, 1922. The attack on succeeding blocks increased in intensity. 
Only 7 blocks were examined, the remaining blocks together with the sup- 
porting board having been lost, on account of damage by borers. A new 
test piece of 1923 model was immersed June 1, 1923. Blocks 1 of the new 
series, removed July 2, showed 30 to 40 shipworm punctures up to 20 mm. 
ceep. Block 2, removed July 30, contained 30 to 40 specimens per square 
inch of surface, with burrows up to 60 mm. in length. Block 3 was riddled 
near the surfaces with burrows of 130 mm. maximum length, and block 4, 
removed Octcker 1, was completely filled, the tubes reaching a length of 
300 mm. The last blocks inspected were removed January 7, 1924. Teredo 
parksi was predominant, with Teredo samoaensis and Teredo furcillatus oc- 
curring in small numbers. Limnoria action at times was quite severe. As- 
sociated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Schizoporella), Corophium and 
tube worms. 


YD-1601—These blocks, due to their long time in transit, were generally 
received in poor condition for inspection. In all, seventeen blocks (Nos. 
2-18) have been reported. Damage by Martesia was found to be quite 


454 HARBOR REPORTS 


heavy. The action of Teredo parski was also severe. No Limnoria action 
was noted. 


Methods of Protection 

Creosote Impregnation and Pile Coating—The use of creosoted piling 
in Hawaiian waters has been abandoned by the Army as being unsatisfac- 
tory except for temporary structures. Unfortunately there is available no 
record of treatment or of oil analyses. 

In the reconstruction in May, 1918, of a small quay wall at Pier 4, Hono- 
lulu, the piles were treated with three heavy coats of asphalt paint, sanded 
after each coat. In January, 1921, these piles were eaten away about 75 
per cent in the section between high and low water, rendering the wharf 
unsafe. Both Limnoria and shipworm action caused the damage. 

The report of the Public Works Officer at Pearl Harbor follows: 


“Douglas fir timber piles in lengths varying from 50 feet to 90 feet have 
been much used in the construction of wharves at Pearl Harbor. Untreated 
piles are used only in such structures as will permit of the piles being en- 
tirely below the mud line, and therefore not exposed to borers. Metal 
sheathed untreated piles, creosoted piles, or concrete piles have been used 
in all locations where the piles are exposed to the action of borers. 

“Untreated timber piles are proving successful in the foundations of the 
coaling plant wharf, the outboard ends of the torpedo boat piers, and the 
original part of 1010 wharf, in all of which structures the piles are cut off 
below the mud line and capped with a concrete column. The coaling plant 
wharf was built in 1912, 1913 and 1914 by Yard labor; the torpedo boat 
piers in 1916 and 1917 under contract 2169; and 1010 wharf in 1916, 1917, 
1918 and 1919 under contract 2178. The foundations of these structures 
are giving no trouble. There is no available data on the life of untreated 
piles at Pearl Harbor completely submerged and cut off below the mud line. 
Presumably they will last indefinitely. The columns of such structures 
should, however, be frequently inspected by a diver to prevent undetected 
exposure of the piles to borers due to erosion of the bottom. Some work 
will probably be needed at the coaling plant wharf in the near future to 
prevent such exposure of the piles, a recent inspection by a diver showing 
some of the piles very nearly exposed. Such erosion is especially likely 
where dredging has been done in the channel near such structures. Un- 
treated timber piles when used in an ordinary timber wharf with no pro- 
tection from borers have a life of from 6 to 12 months at Pearl Harbor. 
Untreated piling costs from 40 to 65 cents per foot delivered but not driven. 

“Copper sheathed untreated timber piles and untreated timber piles 
sheathed with yellow metal have been used in the construction of the hos- 
pital wharf, commandant’s boat landing, and boat landing at Magazine 
Island. The dates of construction and present age of these structures are: 


DATE OF 
WHARF CONSTRUCTION AGE 
Boat: Landing No.3) 2.25350 S.0. sts costes ee 191% 7 years 
Boat Landing Magazine Island 7... ......0 eee 1916 8 years 
Hospital: Wharf) 2in%c0. 2c eet nee eee 1916 8 years 


‘““Sheathed piles in these structures have stood up well except when an 
injury to the sheathing has permitted the entry of borers which have rap- 
idly destroyed the pile. Sheathed piles do not stand hard driving well and 
their use in important structures is not recommended. 

“Creosoted piles were used in the construction of the wharves listed be- 


low: 
DATE OF 
WHARF CONSTRUCTION AGE 
Sub. Base Piers. b-and:. 222% se.) eet en eee 1917 isake 5, 6, 7 years 
Gommandant’s’ Bost Houser... a. eee eee 1918 6 years 
Air Station, Whart d.20c.cieee a ae eee 1922 2 years 


Air .Station Boat’ Landing. o..ce: .. eee 1922 2 years | 


PACIFIC ISLANDS 455 


“The piles stand up well except where a large surface injury permits the 
entry of borers. The ordinary life of such piling in Pearl Harbor is not yet 
known, although it is known that in creosoted pile wharves an occasional 
pile will have to be replaced when the structure is about two years old and 
replacements must be made from time to time thereafter when an injury to 
a pile permits borers to reach the uncreosoted wood. ‘The specifications 
under which the above structures were built do not call for any special care 
in the handling of creosoted piles—the use of spike dogs in the rafting of 
piles is not prohibited, for instance. Care is taken, however, in the design 
of the structures to have no bolt holes below the water line and to have all 
bracing above the water line. In the case of the Air Station Wharf at Ford 
Island, the bracing has been placed about 6 inches too low, as it is wet at 
high water and the lower edges of the members have been badly attacked 
by Limnoria. The piles have apparently not been attacked. Creosoted pil- 
ing used at Pearl Harbor has been bought under specifications calling for 
treatment by the vacuum and pressure process and requiring the use of 
from 12 to 14 pounds of creosote per cubic foot of impregnated wood and a 
depth of penetration of the oils of % inch. Creosoted piling costs from 
$0.90 to $1.20 per lineal foot. . 

“Treatment of cuts, daps, and notches in creosoted piles and of the timber 
of the superstructure of wooden wharves with carbolineum applied with a 
brush has been used to a limited extent. There is no data available on the 
cost of such treatment or on its effectiveness.” 


Armor—Sheathing with yellow metal has been used by the Lighthouse 
Service on wood spars for this vicinity in times past, but its use has been 
abandoned because it was easily damaged and as it was found that the 
slightest break in the metal was sufficient to admit borers in destructive 
numbers. The Army finds that protection by copper or yellow metal over 
felt is unsatisfactory, as the metal is frequently torn or perforated. 


Timber piles protected with steel casing, the annular space filled with 
’ concrete, were used in the old quarantine wharf at Honolulu, constructed 
in 1906. When removed in 1917 it was found that portions of the piles had 
been eaten away at or near the mud line, and it was evident that the casing 
had not penetrated below the bottom to a sufficient depth to prevent the 
washing away of the fresh concrete and the entrance of the borers. 


Substitutes for Timber 


Concrete—Of the concrete structures built by the Army in the Hawaiian 
district none antedate 1910. A recent report states that no apparent de- 
terioration of reinforced concrete structures due to salt water exposure has 
occurred where the steel reinforcement was not badly rusted when placed 
and where the reinforcement has at least one inch of concrete protection. 


The report of the Navy Department on concrete structures is as follows: 


“There are numerous reinforced concrete waterfront structures at the 
Pearl Harbor Navy Yard. The principal ones being the coaling plant 
wharf, torpedo boat piers, 1010 wharf, ammunition depot wharf, and the 
new oil wharf at Merry Point. Climatic and other conditions favor these 
structures as they are exposed to but little rain, are hardly ever splashed 
by salt spray, and are never subjected to the trying effects of alternate 
freezing and thawing. As will be mentioned later, the only serious signs 
of deterioration that are evident on any of these structures are spalling 
of reinforced concrete piles and cylinders a short distance above high water 
mark. The decks, girders, beams, and in general the floor and superstruc- 
tures are all in good condition. 

“Precast concrete piles have been used at Pearl Harbor in the construc- 
tion of the ammunition depot wharf, torpedo boat piers, the fuel oil wharf 
at Merry Point, and in constructing additions to 1010 wharf under contract 


456 


HARBOR REPORTS 


No. 4591. These wharf jobs are treated below in some detail in a series of 
subparagraphs. 

“The Ammunition Depot wharf was started in October, 1912, and com- 
pleted in September, 1914, the present age of the structure, therefore, being 
from 10 to 12 years. Two pile designs were used in the work. The ma- 
jority of the piles are of octagonal design, cross section being a regular 
octagon whose inscribed circle is 16 inches in diameter at the butt and 11 
inches in diameter at the tip. The piles are reinforced with 12 %-inch 
round rods equally spaced around the circumference of a circle of such 
diameter that there is 2 inches of concrete covering the rods. This 2-inch 
cover is from the face of the pile to the outer face of the rod—not the dis- 
tance to the center of the rod. The rods run the entire length of the pile, 
which is further reinforced with spiral wrapping of number 6 wire wound 
on a 4-inch pitch. The mix, period of curing and method of driving used 
on these piles are not known. The second design was used in making two 40- 
foot piles with square cross section 14 inches by 14 inches at the butt and 
12 inches by 12 inches at the tip. They were reinforced with eight 1-inch 
round bars, 4 in the corners and 4 in the center of each face of the pile, 
and had a spiral wrapping of number 6 wire wound on a 4-inch pitch. 
The mix, period of curing and method of driving of these piles are not 
known. Both octagonal and square piles have about 6 feet of their length 
exposed to air and from 2 to 30 feet exposed to water.. The octagonal piles, 
of which there are 48, are all in good condition, while the square piles, 
of which there are only two, are both in bad condition, the concrete having 
spalled off all faces about 18 inches above high water mark so as to expose 
the reinforcing steel, which is very badly rusted. These piles require imme- 
diate major repairs. ; 

“Torpedo boat piers were built under contract No. 2169 in 1916 and 1917 
and are, therefore, from 7 to 8 years old. The inboard sections of these 
piles are supported on precast reinforced concrete piles varying in length 
from 34 to 87 feet. The piles are square cross section, 16 inches by 16 
inches, except under the railroad tracks, where they are 18 inches by 18 
inches. The piles are reinforced with eight 11%4-inch round rods, the corner 
rods running the full length of the pile, while rods in the center of the 
faces extend from the top for a length of 9 feet 3 inches. The piles have 
%-inch round hoops and diagonal ties spaced 2 feet 6 inches center to 
center, except that at the top the hoops are spaced 6 inches center to cen- 
ter to withstand driving stresses. The reinforcing is placed so that there 
is 1% inches of concrete over the outside of the main longitudinal rein- 
forcement. The concrete was 1:2:3% mix, the sand being a mixture of 
two parts crusher sand with three parts Waianae; the rock was 1-inch. 
The piles were driven with an ordinary steam hammer having a 5,000-pound 
ram falling about 3% feet. The piles were not jetted or churned. A num- 
ber of piles were rejected for transverse cracks developing during the driv- 
ing. The present condition of these piles is not satisfactory. There are in 
all 207 piles in the three piers and of this number 45 are more or less 
seriously spalled between the water line and the deck of the wharf. The 
piles are in good condition below the water line. The spalling is similar 
to that described as having taken place in the square piles of the ammuni- 
tion depot wharf. 

“Merry Point wharf and extensions to 1010 wharf. These are new struc- 
tures, the extensions to 1010 wharf being as yet incomplete. For complete 
data on the lengthy and involved question of the reinforced concrete piles 
used in these structures, the reader is referred to the correspondence on 
contract No. 4650, under which the fuel oil wharf was constructed, and 
contract No. 4591, under which the 1010 wharf is being lengthened. The 
piles are as yet too new to give any valuable data as to their durability. 
Extremely valuable data can be obtained from these contracts, however, on 
the question of casting, curing, lifting and driving concrete piles. Atten- 
tion is particularly invited to a Board report on contract No. 4650, dated 
November 22, 1923. 

“In the casting of all the concrete piles mentioned above, standard brands 
of Government tested cement were used. The aggregates were crushed lava 
rock and Waiana sand, while the water was from an Artesian well at 


PACIFIC ISLANDS A577 


Moanalua. This water is potable, has a salt content of under six grains 
per gallon, and there is no question that it is a good water for mixing 
concrete. The spalling noted on the square piles of the ammunition depot 
wharf and the square piles of the torpedo boat wharves is believed to be 
due to insufficient cover over the reinforcing material and possibly due to 
the use of a concrete which is not as dense and impervious as it should be. 
Further search is being made through old files in an endeavor to get details 
of the mixes used on the Ammunition Depot wharf job, as the good con- 
dition of the octagonal piles and the poor condition of the square piles 
indicate that valuable information may be obtained from this structure. 
Possibly the Bureau’s files might yield information of value on this matter. 


“Sheet piling and precast cylinders. There is no reinforced concrete 
sheet piling of any consequence at Pearl Harbor. Precast cylinders were 
used, however, in the construction of the coaling plant wharf and the out- 
board ends of the torpedo boat wharves. 


“The coaling plant wharf was constructed by Yard labor in 1912, 1913, 
1914 and 1915. The structure is, therefore, from 9 to 12 years old. The 
cylinders used in the construction of this wharf are from 31 feet to 85 feet 
in length, 4 feet.in external diameter and 2 feet 8 inches internal diameter 
at the upper section, while the lower bell ends which fit over clusters of 
untreated timber piles are 10 feet in external diameter and 8 feet 8 inches 
internal diaméter. Both the bell end and the 4 foot column sections of the 
cylinders are 8 inches thick and are reinforced with 1 inch square rods 
running vertically and % inch round rods as circumferential reinforcement. 
The details of the mix used in the precast cylinders are unknown. The gen- 
eral present condition of the cylinders is good except that the cylinders are 
spalling in a few places where the reinforcement evidently got out of place 
in the form so that there is only a fraction of an inch of concrete over it 
instead of the designed amount of cover. 


“The torpedo boat wharf precast cylinders are shown in detail on Y. & 
D. drawing No. 643038. The design follows the above outlined features of 
the cylinders on the coaling plant wharf very closely. The mix was 1:2:3%, 
the sand being two parts crusher sand and three parts Waianae; the rock 
was 1 inch crushed lava of the usual grade. These cylinders are now in 
excellent condition. 

“Precast columns and struts grouted into place were used in the construc- 
tion of 1010 wharf and the outboard ends of the torpedo boat piers. Details 
of these columns and struts are shown on contract drawings of contract No. 
2169, under which the torpedo boat piers were built, and contract No. 2178, 
covering the construction of 1010 wharf. These precast members are all 
in good condition. 

“The cylinders mentioned above were filled with tremie concrete, which 
will be treated in a later section of this report. 


“Poured-in-place cylinders or piers were constructed inside the precast 
concrete cylinders described above under the heading of coaling plant wharf 
and torpedo boat piers. These cylinders were made by filling the precast 
cylinders with tremie concrete and will, therefore, be treated in a later 
section of this report, under the heading: of tremie concrete. 


“Decks and superstructures—Girders, arches, beams, slabs and walls of 
reinforced concrete wharves at Pearl Harbor are of usual standard design. 
The superstructure of the torpedo boat wharves was made with 1:21%4:4 
concrete. The superstructure of 1010 wharf and of Merry Point wharf 
were made with the same mix. The superstructures of ell these wharves 
are in excellent condition, there being no evidence of spalling except in 
very few cases where the reinforcement has evidently been out of place so 
as to have practically no concrete covering protecting it. It is understood 
that on San Francisco Bay serious trouble has been experienced recently 
with spalling on the underside of waterfront structures, and the Pearl 
Harbor wharves have therefore been carefully examined for evidences of 
such spalling in order that this report might take cognizance of trouble of 
this kind if it existed. It is believed that the satisfactory condition of the 
Pearl Harbor structures is largely due to climatic conditions and the fact 
that seas in the harbor are rarely heavy enough to cause serious splashing 


458 


HARBOR REPORTS 


up against the undersides of wharves. No protective coating of bitumen 
or other similar material has been applied to the undersides of these 
wharves. 

“Tremie concrete has been used at Pearl Harbor in filling spaces between 
precast sections of the dry dock and in filling precast cylinders at the coal- 
ing plant wharf and the torpedo boat piers and in attaching precast columns 
to untreated wooden pile clusters in the foundations of 1010 wharf. 

“In the dry dock work tremie concrete was of 1:2:3% mix, each cubic 
foot of sand being composed of 1% cubic foot crusher sand and % cubic foot 
of crushed rock screenings. 

“The coaling plant wharf cylinders were filled with tremie concrete of 
the same mix used in the dry dock work. 

“Torpedo boat wharf precast cylinders were filled with tremie concrete 
of 1:2:3% mix, the sand being two parts crusher sand and three parts 
Waianae sand. 

“1010 wharf precast members were attached to wooden piles with tremie 
concrete of 1:2:34% mix, the sand being two parts crusher sand and three 
parts Waianae, 

“Tremie concrete structures which have recently been examined by a 
diver have been found in good condition except that at the coaling plant, as 
has been noted above, erosion of the bottom threatens to expose some of 
the wooden piles. This, of course, is not the fault of the tremie concrete. 

“Methods of protecting concrete structures have until very recently con- 
sisted simply of the usual precautions in mixing and placing. There is, of 
course, no difficulty due to freezing at Pearl Harbor, and satisfactory con- 
crete is insured by using tested materials, keeping the water content of the 
mix down to a reasonable amount, and keeping the new concrete wet during 
the period of curing. In the dry season in Hawaii the proper curing of 
concrete offers a serious problem, as the material dries out very quickly and 
must be almost constantly sprayed if it can not be buried in wet sand or 
wet sawdust. The proper curing of concrete piles is particularly difficult. 
Methods used successfully are described in detail in the correspondence on 
contract No. 4650, which has been referred to previously. There are no 
records of the use of water-proofing compounds at Pearl Harbor, nor has 
the cement gun been used for “guniting’’ joints, surfaces, ete. The practice 
of painting concrete piles with asphalt is being commenced at Pearl Harbor 
with contract No. 4591. This job is now under way and no data are avail- 
able as to the protection afforded by such painting.” 


A recent report by the Navy on concrete structures in Pago Pago harbor, 
Tutuila, Samoa, follows: 


“Two concrete water-front structures exist: The Customs Wharf and the 
Governor’s Landing. The former consists of precast piles with concrete 
walls hung between, and is 112 feet long. ‘The latter is a pier of which 
only the outboard end is of concrete construction; this was poured in place, 
and consists of piles and a beam and girder deck.” 


“Precast Piles, Customs Wharf. Piles are 8 inches square at the point 
and 20 inches square at the butt. Their average length is 30 feet, and they 
were installed in 1919 and 1920, in 12 to 17 feet of water (low tide) ; the 
tide range is 3.6 feet, and the piles show about 2 feet above high water. A 
local volcanic blue stone was used in the concrete, which has previously 
been used with success; coral sand washed in fresh water; and Atlas Port- 
land cement, Navy specifications, and in good condition. The water used 
was from the Station reservoir, and was clear and pure. Reinforcement 
was % and % inch square twisted bars, wire brushed before placing, and 
24% inches concrete cover was provided. ‘The mix was 1:2:4, and gave a 
smooth appearance. The curing of the piles was done in the open; they 
were wet when the forms were removed, then left to the tropical climate, 
with frequent showers, for 30 days. They were supported along their 
entire length upon 2 x 12 boards resting on 6x6 sills. No cracks developed. 
Driving was done with a 1495-pound drop hammer using a drop of from 
8 feet to 25 feet, a wooden cap protecting the head of the pile. Jetting was 
attempted but was not found to be successful. The appearance of these 


PACIFIC ISLANDS 459 


piles indicates that they are in good condition and that apparently no 
defects have developed. There are no soft spots, nor is any erosion 
apparent; the reinforcement is undoubtedly in good condition.” 

“Poured in Place Cylinders or Piers, Governor’s Landing. Square piers, 
18 inches square, placed in 1918. The concrete was hand mixed and the 
bottom concrete deposited in paper; following sections were deposited dry 
or slightly dampened, letting the salt water mix in the concrete; above the 
level of the water, fresh water was used in the mix. The piers rest on rock 
on the coral reef; their length to low water is 12 feet, to high water 3.6 feet 
additional, and they project about 3 feet above high water. The materials 
used were the same as described above under precast piles, and % inch 
twisted square bars were used for reinforcing. The mix was 1:2:4, and 
shows a good surface except where the dry mix was deposited, which is 
rough and porous-looking in spots. Wooden forms were used, 1x12 sur- 
faced and put together with tongue and groove. All pouring below water 
level was done continuously; construction joints were all above the water. 
Surfaces of joints were cleaned off before new concrete was deposited. 
Forms remained for ten days before being removed. The piers show good 
surface except as noted; the appearance between high and low water is fair. 
No serious defects have been noted.” 

“Decks and Superstructures. Deck on Governor’s Landing is of the beam 
and girder type. It is uncovered, about 3 feet above high water, and 
exposed to much spray but to little or no wave action. The concrete and 
reinforcing materials are the same as those used in the piers. Forms were 
removed after 4 days. The main part of the superstructure is in good or 
fair condition, except that cracks and spalling occur in all the small sections 
such as rails and posts (ornamental lamp posts), due undoubtedly to the 
fact that there is only about % or % inch of concrete between the outer 
surface and the reinforcing steel. The walls between piles at the Customs 
Wharf are hung and extend to just below low water. Concrete materials 
and reinforcing are the same here as in the piers and piles. The forms 
were 1x12 and had a bottom board, the under part of the wall being later 
filled in with stones. The concrete was placed dampened, and the forms 
removed after 4 days. The appearance is good.” 

“Methods of Protecting Concrete Structures. No particular precautions 
were taken in mixing and placing concrete aside from the procedure dis- 
cussed above. No waterproofing was done. Concrete superstructures were 
washed with a cement wash containing 3 parts cement to one part lime.” 


There are timber wharves on concrete piles, concrete wharves on con- 
crete cylinders, concrete sea walls and concrete retaining walls at Cavite 
and Olongapo, Philippine Islands, but unfortunately the records of mate- 
rials and methods employed in their construction are incomplete. 

In general, precast piles were well reinforced, with a covering of 114 to 
2 inches thick, and vary in size from about 10 inches to 16 inches square. 
Cement of several standard brands and usually a good grade of crushed stone 
or screened and washed river gravel made up the aggregate, and the water 
for gaging was practically pure, either from mountain streams or artesian 
wells. The concrete was mixed to a fairly wet consistency in the proportion 
1:1144:3, and the piles were brushed down with a cement wash after cast- 
ing. The piles were cured for thirty days and driven with an ordinary 
drop hammer of from 1500 to 2600 pounds weight. 

The precast concrete cylinders for the two concrete wharves at Olongapo 
installed in 1909, are 2 feet 6 inches in diameter at the top, with a flared 
base 4 feet 6 inches in diameter. The precast shells are reinforced with 
plain 1-inch rods vertically, and 14-inch plain rods horizontally. The mate- 
rials and methods were the same as for the precast piles. The proportions 
of the mix are unknown. 

The cylinders supporting the Coaling Plant Wharf at Cavite, built in 
1903, were poured in place inside of heavy cast iron cylinders. The mixing 


460 HARBOR REPORTS 


materials, conditions, etc., are not recorded, but are believed to have been 
uniformly good. 

The girders and beams of the three concrete wharves at Olongapo are 
structural steel encased in concrete. The decks of these wharves are con- 
crete, reinforced. The abutment for the two concrete wharves at the 
Olongapo Navy Yard is reinforced concrete of quite simple design and con- 
struction. The wall supporting the inner side of the Olongapo Coaling 
Plant Wharf is 18 feet high with a 9 foot base. Its face is battered 1 foot 
in 4 feet, and its back is stepped off one foot at points four and eight feet 
down from the top. The concrete for this wall is 1:2:4 below M. L. W. and 
1:3:6 above that point. Its face above M. L. W. is composed of 1:2 cement 
mortar finish, placed by spading back the concrete from the front of the 
form as the work progressed. 

Concrete sea walls, of several types, exist at the Cavite and Olongapo 
Naval Stations, but as all of them are of simple design and construction 
and are erected in only two or three feet depth of water they are of but 
little interest. No data concerning the construction of the wall along the 
inner face of the wharf at the Coaling Plant, Cavite, are available. 

So far as a superficial examination can reveal, these structures appear to 
be in good condition as a whole. 


Metal 
With reference to metal structures, the Pago Pago harbor report states 
as follows: 


“Piles and Cylinders. The Station Wharf is a steel wharf with a wooden 
deck. The piles are 6 and 8 inches in diameter, solid steel, driven with a 
drop hammer in some cases, screwed in others, and in still other cases large 
cast steel discs, notched into the pile, rest on rock fill on the coral reef, these 
dises constituting the bearing surface of the pile. The work was done in 
1899 and 1900. The piles are exposed to water a length of from 0 to 25 
feet; further a distance of 3.6 feet for range of tide, while the wharf is 
about 8 feet above high water. The piles show no serious deterioration; no 
electrolytic action has been noticed, although such action is supposed to 
have taken place at times in the past when copper sheathed vessels have 
been alongside. There is a good deal of growth and incrustation of bar- 
nacles on the piles, but the rusting is only surface rusting, no spalling or 
other defects having been observed to date.” 

“Girders, Trusses, Beams, etc. The superstructure of the Station Wharf 
is built of lattice girders, I-beams, struts, hangers, and eye-bars, square, 
with turnbuckles. The pile caps are cast iron. Practically all of this 
material is in very poor condition, except that which was renewed in 1918. 
It is exposed to spray, but little or no wave action. The paint is red lead 
(1918) ; it has not been chipped or painted within the last four years, due 
to lack of funds.” 

“Miscellaneous Metal Structures and Parts: Buoys and chain. The con- 
dition below water is good; generally covered with barnacles and growth. 
The buoys are worn thin near the water line, and somewhat deteriorated 
above. They are located in the Bay and are exposed to a little wave action 
and much sun, wind and spray. The material is Navy standard.” 

“Methods of Protecting. Material conforms to Navy specifications. The 
buoys are painted every 6 months; the Wharf has not been painted for 4 
years. No other coverings are used.” 


Metal piles support the front edge of the Coaling Plant Wharf, Cavite. 
These piles consist of cast iron sections, 1212 inches outside diameter, 
length per section, 12 feet %4-inch to 12 feet 61% inches, with bell joints 12 
inches deep, pinned together, assembled so as to give a total net length of 


PACIFIC ISLANDS A61 


approximately 70 feet. The lower (or point) section has an overall length 
of 4 feet (net 3 feet) and has no bell, a shoulder being provided to serve the 
Same purpose as a bell. These piles are reinforced with 60 pound R. R. 
rails and were filled with rich concrete, the exact proportions of which are 
unknown. The cast iron is 114 inches thick. They were driven in 1903, 
coated with some kind of bituminous compound and appear, from a super- 
ficial examination, to be in good condition. 


Field Experiments 


Experiments with the method of protecting piles with steel and copper 
roofing nails are being conducted by the Navy at Pearl Harbor. The tests 
are so arranged as to afford a comparison of results with different spacings 
of nails and untreated woods, and each group includes five test pieces which 
are to be removed at periods of 14, 1, 2, 5 and 10 years after date of instal- 
lation, September, 1923. 

Coating with copper paint is a process used to proteet wood spar buoys, 
but as they are renewed practically every 6 months, the ultimate protective 
quality of this paint in this district is not known. 


Conclusions 

Both molluscan and crustacean borers are very active in all these harbors, 
and the best possible protection is needed for timber piles. In Cavite the 
predominance of Martesia indicates the necessity for mechanical protection. 

The age of the concrete structures reported is not great enough to permit 
drawing conclusions as to the life of this material. 

The record of the steel piles at Tutuila is good and should encourage the 
consideration of this material. 


CHAPTER XI 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The Committee wishes to offer its acknowledgments for many titles for 
the sections on Biology and Wood Preservation to Dr. C. A. Kofoid of the 
University of California and Dr. A. L. Barrows, Asst. Secretary, National 


Research Council. 


Other titles have been incorporated from the very ex- 


haustive bibliographies assembled by Dr. Frederick Moll and published in 
“Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Forst und Landwirtschaft,” Vol. 12, 
pp. 505-564 (Nov.-Dec. 1914) and Vol. 13, pp. 178-207, (Apr.-May, 1915). 

Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Duff A. Abrams of the Portland 
Cement Association and Lewis Institute for a large number of titles in the 
section on Cement and Concrete in Sea Water and to members of the 
Kngineering Societies Library staff for their work of checking and re- 
vising the manuscript of the wood preservation, cement and concrete in 
sea water, metal and miscellaneous sections. 


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GHNERAL 


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yy 


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A464 


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ee ee ee ve 


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=? 


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WOOD PRESERVATION 


Achatz, R. V. 
1920—Preservative treatment of wood 
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no 2. 


Addison, G. H. 
1911—-Destruction of a timber jetty by 
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Adsett, F. C. 
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1907—Methods and economic aspects 
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1907—Quantity and character of creo- 
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1911—Depths of penetration in wood 


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1924—-Report of Sub-Committee on 


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American Wood Preservers’ Association. 
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Eng... & Contr VW los, peo 


American Wood Preserving Company. 
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Anderson, J. 
1878—Bericht tiber die bis jetzt geleg- 


ten unterseeischen kabel. Dinglers 
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WOOD PRESERVATION 


1910—Eeonomy of treated crossties. 
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1911—Costs of treating seasoned and 
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1915—Tie preservation in the Balti- 


more and Ohio Railroad. Ry Rev 
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1915—Wood preservation. Wood pre- 


serving v 2, no 4, p 72-3. 

1915—Wood preservation; its past, 
present and future. Lumber Wld 
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n. d.—Notes on seasoning and treat- 
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script rept, 8-P-12-5. 


Angier, F. J. and others. 
1914—-Various phases in the details of 
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Annand, J. F. 
1914—Preservative treatment of tim- 
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Antiseptische behandlung des holzes. 
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Anwendung des impragnierverfahrens 
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Apparatus for creosoting railroad ties. 
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Armstrong, A. K. 


1913—Woods used for piling. Forest 
products Laboratory manuscript 
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1916—Greenheart, A timber with ex- 
ceptional qualities. Eng Rec v 73, 
p 149-50, 180-1. 


1917—Protecting the bottoms of 


wooden — ships. Am Lumberman 
no 2220, p 52-3. Dec 1. 
Arn, W. G. 


1909—Durability of creosoted piles in 
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Ashmead, D. C. 
1920—Three or twelve years for mine 
timbers? Coal Age v 18, p 281-2. 


Ayer and Lord Tie Company’s Carbon- 
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Bailey, Irving W. 
1913——Preservative treatment of wood. 
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Baist. 
1862—Nouvelles expériences sur la 
conservation des bois, au moyen du 


AT5 


sulfate de cuivre et du goudron. Soc 
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2; from Dinglers polytech J. 


Baker, H. P. 
1907—-Treatment of fence posts to in- 
crease durability. Forestry Q v 5, 

p 399-402. 


Balden, J. 
1907—Creosoting of timber by absorp- 
tion. Roy Scottish Arboricultural 
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Barger, G. 
1922—-Report on the investigation of 
the protection of timber against 
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Barker, J. M. 
1916—Strength of burnettized timber. 
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Barker, R. 
1910—Protection of piles in sea water. 
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Barnes, T. Harvard. 
1911—Notes on pile protection. 
Eng Soc J v 47, p 101-5. 


Barnum, C. T. 
1910—Wood preservation from an en- 
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p 381. 


Barre, H. W. 
1919—Creosoting fence posts. South 
Carolina Agr Exp Sta Bul 201, 15 p. 
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Barshall Impregnating Co. Treatise on 
1900 wood preservation with special 
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ough, reliable and permanent. (New 

I ObK) memo ae 


Barth, K. C, 
1917—Economic importance of wood 
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p 985-8, Chem Abstr v 12, p 302. 


1917—Preservation of poles from de- 
cay. Telephony v 72, no i jo) DoT) 
Chen Abstreyv lt, p Uso5. 

1917—Wood preservation; its impor- 
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June 10. 

1917—-Wood preservation; methods of 
treatment. Lumber World Rev v 33, 
no 4, p 19-21, Aug 265. 

1917—Wood preservation; the most 
practical manner in which this may 
be done. Lumber World Rev v 38, 
no l,'pe23-4 July 10: 

1918—-Modern development and prac- 
tical details in the preservative 
treatment of wood. Am Soc Agr 
iDheves, Meanie ay 1, 18) Uapairee 

1918—Preservative treatment of mine 
timbers as a conservation measure. 
Coal Age v 14, p 1025-7. 


1918—Wood preservation; 


Assoc 


a valuable 


aid in promoting lumber = sales. 
Lumber World Rev v 34, no 8, p 29- 
Sidhe Gene aby, 
Bass, F. H. 
1906—Preservation of timber. Eng 


Soc Minnesota U Year Book v 14, 
p 31-8 


476 


Bateman, FE. 
1911—Modification of the sulfonation 
test for creosote. Forest Service 
Cir no. 191):Chem =A DStrevet peloGs. 


1911—-Visual method for determining 
the penetration of inorganic salts 
in treated wood. US Forest Service 
Cir no 190, Chem Abstr v 6, p 1063, 
Eng News v 66, p 705, Eng & Min J 
v¥ 92, p 1218;°Chem Abstr v. 6,°p 539= 
40. 


1912—Quantity and quality of creosote 
found in two treated piles after 
long service. Forest Service Cir no 
1995 Chem Abstrev> 7, Dp 275. 


1914—-Method for determining the 
amount of zine chloride in treated 
wood. J Ind & Eng Chem v 6, p 16- 
18, Chem Abstr v 8, p 1003. 


1915—Report of committeee on wood 
preservatives. Am Woodpreservers 
Assoc Pro voo21, p.  1s)-40, Chem 
Abstr v 9, p 2301. 


1916—Relation between the _ specific 
gravity of zine chloride solutions 


and their concentrations. Wood 
Preserving v 3, p 54-6, Chem Abstr 
Vi l0npeao Los 


1920—Inaccuracy of treating methods 
due to moisture in wood. Chem & 
Met Eng v 22, p 57-9, Chem Abstr 
ve 14> p 10252 


1920—-Leaching of zinc chloride from 
treated wood. Am Ry Eng Assoc 
Bul’-w 22) no 227) py (3-875 > Chem 
Abstr® vel4ep se04e 


1920—Relation between viscosity and 
penetrance of creosote into wood. 
Chem & Met Eng v 22, p 359-60, 
Chem Abstr v 14, p 1206. 


1920—Theory of the mechanism of the 
protection of wood. Ry Signal Eng 
v 13, p 259, Am Wood Preservers 
Assoc Pro v 17, p 506-14, Chem Abstr 
VelL4ep sl 023. 


1920—What light creosote oils have 
done in wood preservation. Am 
Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16, 
p 44-55, Chem Abstr v 14, p 1024. 


1922—Coal tar and water gas tar creo- 
sotes; their properties and methods 
7 aoe U S Dept Agr Bul no 
036. 


1922—-Theory on the mechanism of 
protection of wood by preservatives. 
a soe Preservers Asso Pro v 18, 
p 70-89. 


Bateman, Ernest and Town, G. G. 
1920—Report on laboratory experi- 
ments to determine the loss of creo- 
sote by evaporation from open-tank 
treatments. Am Wood Preservers 
Assoc Pro v 16). p 83-912 


Baterden, J. R. 
1903-4—Creosoting timber. 
Eng Pro v 158, p 141-2. 


Inst Civil 


Baumhauer, E. H. von. 
1866—Sur le taret et les moyens de 
préserver le bois de ses dégats. 
Archives néerlandaises des Sciences 
Exactes et Naturelles, I p 1-45. 


Bedford, M. H. and Pfanstiel, R. 
1914—-New method for the determina- 
tion of zine in treated wood. J Ind 
& Chem v6; p 811, Chem Abstr v9; 
p 139. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Belcher, R. S. 
1913—Effect of initial air pressure on 
penetration of creosote. Eng Rec 
v.67, p 299-300, Chem” Abstr v7, 
Divo. 


Benham, Claude Gilbert. 
1917—Open-tank treatment of timber 
urged for small railroads. Eng News 
Vv 719-°pla2: 


Berlin Mills Co. Selection of structural 
1913 wood and its preservation from 
decay. Portland, Me. 25 p. 


Berry, James B. 
1917—Prolonging life of farm timbers. 
ends State Col Agr ext Division 
Cir ; 


Besson, M. H. 
1901—Conservation des Bois par le 
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de France v 1, p 689-7138. 


Bethell, J. 
1842—Preservation of timber. 
Civil Eng Pro v 2, p 68, 88-9. 


1849-50—Mode of creosoting and one 
result of its application at Lowes- 
toft Harbor. Inst Civil Eng Pro 
v 9, p 50-3: 


1851-2—Assumed 
creosoted timber. 
Prosvil ap 23.6. 

1852-3—Kyan, Margary and Paynes 
processes for preserving timber. 
Inst Civil Eng Pro v 12, p 223-30. 


1858-9—Comparative value of creo- 
soted and kyanized timber for ma- 
rine works. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 18, 
p 429-32. 

1859-60—As to. creosoting timber. Inst 
Civil Eng Pro v 19, p 666-7. 


1860—On building woods. The cause 
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Betts, H. S. and Newlin, J. A. 
1915—Strength tests of structural tim- 
bers treated by commercial wood 
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Bixby, William H. 
1880—Creosoting timber. 
Gazette v 12, p 267-8. 


1887—Report on wood-creosote oil. U 
S Bur of Forestry Bul 1, p 99-103. 


1901—Creosoted ties on English Rail- 
ways. Ry & Eng Rev v 41, p 830-1. 


1906—Creosoted wood pavement. Am 
Lumberman July 21. p 26. 


1907—Creosoting of home-grown tim- 
ber. Quart J Forestry v 1, p 49-52. 


1908—Creosoted wood block pavement 
well established in America. Am 
Lumberman Aug 15, p 34. 

1909—Creosoted wood as a paving ma- 
terial. Am Lumberman no _ 1756, 
D ss. Jane lo: 

1909—Creosoted wood block pave- 
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Blake, E. M. 
1920—Application of the perforating 
process in the preservative treat- 
ment of wood with especial refer- 


Inst 


inflammability of 
Inst Civil Eng 


Railroad 


ence to Douglas Spe Boston Soe Civil 4 


- Eng J v7, pi 98-12 


' 


WOOD PRESERVATION 


1920—Data on preservative treatments 
prove that increased service fully 
justifies cost. Am Lumberman no 
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1920—Methods of wood preservation. 
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1909—Zur frage der holzkonservier- 


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1917 posts of various. species. Am 
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Sharp, Wim. 
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Sherfesee, W. F. 
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1908—Primer of wood preservation. 
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1908—Seasoning and preservative 
treatment of hemlock and tamarack 
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1908—Wood preservation. Sci Am §S 
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1908—Wood preservatives and proc- 
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1908—Wood preservation in the U. S. 
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1909—Open-tank process of 
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Inst. Civil Hime, Prov .o2: 


timber 
Eng .Mas )weest 


WOOD PRESERVATION 


1909—Relation of non-pressure proces- 
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Shimek, B. 
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v 6, p 153-6. 


Shipley, G. B. 
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1909—Comparison of the various proc- 
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News v 62, p 396-400. 

1910—Cost of timber’ preservation. 
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1910—New timber treating plant of 
the Eppinger and Russell Co., Jack- 
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(enemy Abstr y 4, p 2043. 


Shirley Plant of the Columbia Creosot- 


Wood Craft 


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Smart, V. I. 
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Smith, C. G. 
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Di vsol=2, 392-3. 

Smith, C. Stowell. 
1908—Preservation of piling against 


marine wood borers. Forest Service 
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1908—Seasoning and preservative 


Engineering v 19, 


treatment of arborvitae poles. For- 
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Smith, E. R. 
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with teredo navalis. Eng News v 43, 


p 361 


Smith, Lowry. 
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1920—Wood preservation. 
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Snow, Chas. H. 


1898—Marine wood borers. Am Soc 
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Snyder, Thomas E. 
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j U S Bureau of Entomology 


Boston Soe 


jury. 
Cir no 56, 4p. 

1919—White-ant-proof wood for the 
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8. 


Sodium Fluoride as a wood preservative. 
1920—Eng News v 84, p 1258. 


Sodium Fluoride as a preservative. 
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Chem Abstr v 14, p 2066. 


Some FEuropean 
1900 tion. 
4; 432-3. 


Special forms for jacketing wood piles 
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p 283. 


Specifications for creosoting Oregon fir 
£907. piling and bridge timber. Ry & 
Eng Rev v 47, p 823-4. 


methods of preserva- 
Ry & Eng Rev v 40, p 243- 


AOL 


Specifications for the preservative treat- 
1920 ment of wood. Boston Soc Civil 
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Spofford, C. M. 
1917—Zine chloride as a preservative 
Of -Sstructurals timber: Nat Assoc 
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Spring, F. J. 
1904—Report on the question of wood- 
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Springer, J. F. 
1921—Enemies of timber construction. 
SCAM envy Love Deel Woman. 


Standage, H. C. 
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woodwork. Builder v 82, p 372-4. 


Standard specifications for creosoted 

19238 piling for Atlantic coast waters 

adopted. Wood-preserving News 
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Stanford, H. R. 

1906—Inspection of treatment for the 
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1916—Pearl Harbor dry dock. Am Soc 
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Staniford, Chas. W. 
1914—Modern pier construction in 
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Stearns, R. E. C. 
1886—The teredo, or shipworm. Am 
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Sterling, E. A. 

1912—Development and status of the 
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1915—Report of committee on specifi- 
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1916—Preservative treatment of farm 
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Stevenson, David. 
1862—Notice on the ravages of the 
limnoria terebrans on _  creosoted 
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1862—Ravages of the limnoria tere- 
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1868—Des ravages que l’insecte connu 
sous le nom de limnoria terebrans 
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1872—-Notice on the ravages of the 


limnoria terebrans on greenheart 
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Stevenson, Thomas. 
1874—Design and the construction of 
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492, 
Stimson. 
1917—Report of Committee on wood 


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Strength of treated timber. 
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Strength tests of structural timbers 

1915 treated by commercial wood pre- 

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Summer, and others. 
1914—Report on the physical condi- 
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SAIDALTOSS. Pl OLoac- California U 
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Taft, H. S. 


1915—Use of wood and concrete in 
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Taylor, C. M. 
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1915—Final inspection of timber. Am 
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DelZea=9. 


Teesdale, C. H. 
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Vil GRD oo ee 


1912—Volatilization of various frac- 
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tion into wood. US Dept Agr For- 
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Veer Chae dela 


1913—Condition of experimental tele- 
graph poles, treated and untreated 
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1914—Effect of varying the prelimin- 
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De 29828 


1914—Efficiency of various parts of 
coal-tar-creosotes against marine 
wood borers. Eng Rec v 70, p 302-3. 


1914—Penetrance of creosote. Eng 
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1914—-Penetration of timber by pre- 
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1914—Relative resistance of various 
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1915—Saving creosote oil in the treat- 
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1916—Destruction of creosoted long- 
leaf pine piling by marine wood bor- 
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1916—Protection of piling from ma- 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1916—Treatment of 
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Teesdale, C. H., and MeLean, J. D. 
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Ve Lh sap leet 
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Tentative specifications for Southern 


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Tentative methods for the analysis of 
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WOOD PRESERVATION 


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* 


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1904—Cross-tie forms and rail fasten- 


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BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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Sci Am §S 


WOOD PRESERVATION 


Waterman, J. H. 
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—  —— 


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sereiiove lon pie lo= 1. 
v 25, p 338-9. 


J Frank Inst 


518 


_1839—Pouzzolanes pour jetées A la 
mer. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées 
ser 1, v 18, p 251-2. 


1841—-Effect de la cuisson sur les ci- 
ments. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul 
v 40, p 59-60. 


1842—-Sur les pouzzolanes artificielles. 
Ann des Ponts et Chaussées, ser 2, 
v4, p 35-7; 


1848—Action de l’eau de mer sur les 
bétons. Soc de ’Encouragement Bul 
v 42, p 483-4. 


1845—Mortier de pouzzolane, action de 
eau de mer sur. Ann des Ponts et 
Chaussées, ser 2, v 6, p 232-3. 


1846—Constructions hydrauliques per- 
fectionnées. Soc de l’Encourage- 
ment Bul v 45, p 92. 


1846—Pouzzolane artificielle composée. 
Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 45, 


p 94. 
1846—Pouzzolane naturelle non-vol- 
canique. Ann des Ponts et Chaus- 


sées, ser 2, v 12, p 127-8. 


1847—Découverte d’une pouzzolane 
naturelle. Ann des Ponts et Chaus- 
sées ser 2, v 14, p 78-80. 


1849—Pouzzolanes volcaniques. Ann 
des Ponts et Chaussées ser 2, v 18, 
p 257-89. 

1851—Ciments éventés et briilés. Ann 
des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 1, 
p 236-54. 


1852—Appréciation de la valeur hy- 
draulique des matériaux pour tra- 
vaux a la mer. Ann des Ponts et 
Chaussées ser 3, v 3, p 379-81. 


1852—-L’emploi du trass comme pouz- 
zolane dans les travaux a la mer. 
Ann des Ponts et Chaussées, ser 3, 
ViloseD on f=o7 


1853—Chaux hydraulique. Soc de 
PEncouragement Bul v 52, p 1212 


1853—Chaux hydraulique artificielle 
de double et de simple cuisson. Ann 
des Ponts et Chaussées, ser 3, v 5, 
p 220-1. 


1853—Ejau de mer: action qu’elle exerce 
sur les mortiers hydrauliques. Ann 
des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 5, 
p 188. 

1853—Constructions dans l’eau de mer. 


Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, 
v 5, p 196-8. 


18538-4—-Chaux et mortiers. Ann des 


Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 5, 
p 848-9, v 7, p 28-31. 
1854—Chaux et mortiers 4a la mer. 


Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, 
v 8, p 8-80. 


1854—Immersion de béton laitance. 
Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, 


v 8, p 203-5. 

1854—-Mortiers 4a la mer. Ann des 
Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 8, 
p 371-5. 

1854—Sur l’opportunité de certaines 
matériaux pour les travaux 4a la 
mer. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées 


ser 3, v 18, p 232-5. 


1855—Mortier magnésien. Ann des 
Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 10, p 354. 


1856—Concours relatif aux mortiers 
hydrauliques destinés a étre em- 
ployés & la mer. Soc de l’Encourage- 
ment Bul v 55, p 610-1. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1856-7—Mortiers hydrauliques. Soe de 
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1857—Mortiers employés A la mer. 
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1858—Observations on cement in sea 
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1850—Chaux, de son hydraulicité. Soc 
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Wagoner, L. 
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1909—Reinforced concrete pier, Santa 
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1921—Use of petroleum products as 
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Washburn, Edward W., 
Frank. 
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and Footift, 


METAL IN 


Waterbury, L. A. 
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Watkins, J. E. 


1891—-Ancient harbors. Am Soc Civil 
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Wear of the inter-tidal space on con- 
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1918—Sea water concrete not hopeless. 
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Wentworth-Shields, BB 


1913-4—Empress dock wall failure, 
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1921—Methods of protecting reinforced 
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White, Alfred H. 
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1852—Artificial hydraulic or portland 
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Whittemore, G. F. 
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Wig, R. J., and Ferguson, L. R. 
1917—Examination of concrete struc- 
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p 5 


Wig, R. J., and Hollister, S. C. 
1918—Problems arising in the design 
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Willet, J. 


1886-7—Concrete above low water at 
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METAL IN 


Andrews, T. 
1884-5—Corrosion of metals 
long exposure in sea water. 
Civil Eng Pro v 82, p 281-94. 


Atlantie City steel pier. 
1899—E'ng Rec v 40, p 94-6. 


Bidwell, H. S. 
1905-6—Steel sheet-piling in the Hod 
Barrow sea wall. Inst Civil Eng Pro 
v 165, p 165-6. 


during 
Inst 


SEA WATER 


519 


Williams, A. E. 
1912—-Iron ore cement. Nat Assoc Ce- 
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Williams, E. L. 
1891-2—-Portland cement mortar at the 
Dover Admiralty pier. Inst Civil 
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Williams, G. M. 
1922—-Durability of concrete in alkali 
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1923—Behavior of concrete exposed to 
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p 211-47. 
Williams, J. E. 
1878-9—Whitehaven harbour and dock 
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p 36-48. 
Willis, S. C. 
1911—Condition of concrete structures 
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p 271-2. 
Witt, J. C. 
1918—Influence of certain substances 
on cement and concrete. Philippine 
J Sei v 18, sect A, p 29-48. 
1920—Effect of calcium sulphate on 
cement. Eng Wld v 16, p 83-7. 
1921—-Study of portland cement by 
chemical analysis. Eng News-Rec 
v 87, p 650-2. 
Witt, J. C. and Reyes, F. D. 


1917—Effect of calcium sulphate on 


cement. Philippine J Sci v 12, sect 
A, p 133-43. 
Wolle, R. 
1899—Zerstorung des cementbetons 
durch kohlenséaurehaltiges wasser. 
Uhland’s Technische Rundschau 


pt 2, p 93-4. 
Wortman, H. 


1905—Harbor development in Holland. 
Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 54, pt A, 
p 181-98. 


Yamasaki, G. 


1903—New egraving: dock of the Ka- 
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Japan. Eng News v 50, p 257-61. 


Yates, J. J. 
1917—Action of sea water on concrete 
bridge. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans 
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1919—Report on disintegrating of con- 
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materials in connection with the use 
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Yoshida, Tokujiro. 
1921—-Studies on cooling of fresh con- 


crete in freezing weather. Illinois 
U Eng Expt Sta Bul 123. 
SEA WATER 
Binnie, A. R. 
1904-5—Action of lime and portland 


cement on iron and steel. Inst Civil 


Eng Pro v 161, p 154-5. 


Brande. 
1842—Changes of cast iron in salt 
water. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 2, p 153. 


softened 
Eng Pro 


1844-8—Composition of iron 
by sea water. Inst Civil 
Vise Doster Ve (nD lok 


520 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Calvert, F. C., and Johnson, R. 
1866—Action of sea water on metals. 
Jd. Frank. Inst” vw 8i.- p.. 2b-75. trom 
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Cargill, Thomas. 
1878—Promenade pier, 
Suffolk. 


Coe, W. W. 
1892—Description of iron coal pier, 
Norfolk and Western Railroad, Lam- 
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some of the methods used in its 


Aldborough, 
Engineer v 96, p 182-4. 


construction. Am. Soc Civil Eng 
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p 129-72. 

Colson, C. 

1880-1—Portsmouth dockyard exten- 


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p 118-73. 


Colson, C., and C. H. 
1893-4—Hamilton 
Malta. 

p 360-80. 


Construction of the Old Orchard pier. 
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Davies, J. V. 
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Davy. 
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p ; 


Deterioration of structures exposed to 
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Diegel. 
1902-8—Corrosion of metals in sea- 
water, v-lnst Civils Hne Prony elo 
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Duneklee, John B. 
1892—Iron wharf at Fort Monroe, Va. 
Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 2%, p 115- 
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1837—J Frank Inst v 23, p 483. 


Ellis, S. H. 
1914-5—-Corrosion of steel wharf at 
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Flinn, A. D. 
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Grover, J. W. 
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1870-1—-Description . of wrought iron 
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Hadfield, R. A. 

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Inst Civil) BnevPromww 214% pas3s-£405 
plates p 141-71; discussion p 173-83, 
correspondence p 183-95. 

1923—Corrosion of ferrous materials 
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MeKaig, E. J. 
1914-5—Subaqueous corrosion of steel. 
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Mallet, R. 
1840—On the corrosion of cast and 
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Matthews, Wm. 
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Inst Civil Eng Pro v 199, p 155-9. 


Meik, C. S. 
1914-5—Corrosion of iron and _ steel 
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p 147-9. 


Merrick, J. V. 
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Metallie piers and piles. 
1864—-J Frank Inst v 78, p 300-1, from 
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Mitchell, James. 
1923—Cutting steel piling below low 
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Mushet, D. 
1840—Analysis of a piece of iron heel 
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Parker, G. H. 
1923—-Chemicals protect metals from 
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Perey. 
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FProcédés de préservation du fer contre 
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Redman, J. B. 
1845—Gravesend Terrace pier. Inst 
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Robinson, J. ss 
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Serew pile pier in Africa. 
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Screw piling for a pier at Blankenberg, 
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| 


MISCELLANEOUS sya 
Walmisley, A. T. Webb, E. B. 
1914-5—Corrosion of Prince of Wales 1862—Durability of cast iron in sea- 


pier, Dover. Inst Civil Eng Pro 
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1915—Notes on corrosion in iron and 
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eng vol p 648-656. 


water. J Frank Inst v 74, p 327-30. 


Wilkinson, H. 
1840—Action of sea water upon 
J Frank Inst v 30, p 66-8. 


iron. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Ahern, George P. 
1904—Tests of Philippine woods. Table 
showing effect of preservative treat- 


ment with creosote upon the 
strength of the four Philippine 
woods, apitong, ipil, betis, and 
lauan. 

1912—Manuscript report. 


Philippine 
Islands, Bur Forestry bul 11. 


Aristophanes. 

424 B. C.—The Knights. Line 1308. 
Everyman’s Library, edition. Lon- 
don, Dent. 

Armstrong, A. K. 
1916—Greenheart used in Panama 


Canal is a timber with exceptional 
Lae Eng Rec v 73, p 149-50, 


Atwood, William G. 
1923—Problems and plans of the com- 
mittee on marine piling investiga- 
tions, National Research Council. 
Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro 
v 19, p 457-65. 


Barron, J. 
1881-2—Buckie Harbour, (Moray Firth). 
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Carbutt, Edward. 
1895-6—Ravages of the teredo in San 
Francisco harbour. Inst Civil Eng 
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Charleston, South Carolina. 
1923 digest of the port. 
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Statistical 
South Atlan- 


Deterioration of structures of timber, 
1920 metal and concrete exposed to 
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Civil Eng. 


Deterioration of structures of timber. 
1922—metal and concrete exposed to 
the action of sea water. Second (In- 
terim) report of the committee of 
the Inst Civil Eng. 


Deterioration of structures of timber, 
1923 metal and concrete exposed to 
the action of sea water. Third (In- 
terim) report of the committee of 
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Dumonteil. 
1852—Bois de la Guyane. Soc de ]’En- 
couragement Bul v 51, p 399-408. 


Ferrel, W. 

1885—Harmonic analysis of tides at 
Governor’s Island, N. Y harbor. 
U S Coast and Geodetic report 
p 489-98. 


Statistical digest 
South Atlantic 


Jacksonville, Florida. 
ioe ot) the port. 
Ports v 4, p 84-90. 


James, J. W. 
1890-1—-Timber in the 
teredo navalis and white ant. 
Civil Eng Pro v 103, p 8387-41. 


Jones, W. A. 
1910—Protection of submarine struc- 
tures. Eng Mag v 38, p 876-82. 


MeCandless, B. 
1916—The harbor of St. Thomas. 
Naval Inst v 42, p 1619-22. 


Maiden, J. H. 
1894—Turpentine tree. 
Gaz v 5, pt 7, p 4638-7. 


Marine borers and their work shown in 
1922 exhibit. Eng News-Rec v 88, 
p 419. 


Marine borers 

1923 discussion. 
p 543 

Matthews, Wm. 

1903-4—-Resistance to the teredo of 
Karri and Jarrah timber. Inst Civil 
Eng Pro v 158, p 137-9. 


tropics; the 
Inst 


US 


N S W Agr 


subject of engineering 
Eng News-Rec v 88, 


1905—Harbors of Great Britain. Am 
Soe Civil, Dng. Trans vo 54, pt oA, 
p 159-80. 


Mell, C. D., and Brush, W. D. 
1913—Greenheart. U S Dept Agr For- 
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Methven, C. W. ; 
1912-3—-Durban Harbour, South A EriGas 
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Mitehell, Henry. 
1886—Circulation of sea through New 
York harbor. U S Coast and Geo- 
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1887—Report on results of physical 
surveys of New York harbor. Ss 
Coast and Geodetic report p 301-11. 


Molesworth, Guilford. 
1895-6—-Action of the teredo on Jarrah 
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Moore, Paul. ‘ 
1923—-That worm is still boring. South 
Atlantic Ports v 4, p 180-1. 


National Research Council opens fight 
1922 on marine borers. Eng News- 
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Ocean out-fall sewer syphon under the 
1923 Middle Harbor, Sydney, N. S. W. 
Engineering v 115, p 547-50. 


Old Testament. 
Vulgate: 2 Kings, 23:8; Sept: Prov- 
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Piekwell, R. 
1892-3—Construction of concrete grav- 
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Civil Ene: Pro w 1i1,-p 75-85, dis- 
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522 


Protecting piles from teredo. 
1918—Sci Am v 119, p 128. 


Ramsbotham, Joshua F. 
1913—Freemantle graving dock: steel 
dam construction for north wall. 
Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 76, p 1942. 


Report on San Francisco Bay marine 
L921 piling survey. Committee pub- 
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Report on San Francisco Bay marine 
1922 piling survey. Committee pub- 
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Report on San Francisco Bay marine 
1923 piling survey. Committee pub- 
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Resistance of 
1920 borers. 

p 704. 
Resistance of greenheart to various ma- 


1920 rine borers. U S Dept Agr For- 
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greenheart to marine 
Eng News-Rec v_ 84, 


Resistance of piles to attacks of t-~e- 


1905 does. Eng News v 53, p 451. 
Savannah, Ga. Statistical digest of the 
19238 port. South Atlantic Ports v 4, 


p 118-9, 122-6. 
Shenton, H. C. H. 


1922—-Pile foundation and clay. Can- 
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Smith, Alexander R. 
1920—Port of New York annual. 
Smith’s Port Publishing Co. 
Staniford, Chas. W. 
1917—Unusual coffer-dam for 1000- 
foot pier, New York City. Am Soc 


Civil Eng Trans v 81, p 498-542, dis- 
cussion p 543-81. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Starling, William. 
1892—Some notes on the Holland 
dikes. Am Soc Civil Eng ‘Trans 
v 26, p 559-656, discussion p 656-700. 


Stevenson, Robert. 
1824—-Account of the Bell-Rock light- 
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Stevenson, Thomas. 
1856—Harbours. Encyclopaedia Bri- 
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Altserbien 
Oest Ing Arch 


Strassenbrickenbiuten in 
1922 und Mazedonien. 
Ver v 74, p 135-6. 


Tampa, Florida. Statistical digest of 
1923 the port. South Atlantic Ports 
v 4, p 248-52. 


$2,500,000 asked to fight teredo. 
1922—-Eng News-Rec v 88, p 461. 


Van Iterson, G., and Séhngen, N. L. 
1911—Over onderzoekingen  verricht 
omtrent geconstateerde aantasting 
van het zoogenaamd manbarklac. 
De Ingenieur Vv 21, p 321-2. 


Von Sechrenk. 
1922—Marine borer problems in the 
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Wagoner, Luther. 
1909—Notes upon docks and harbors. 
Am Soc Civil‘ Eng Trans y 62, p 125-— 
58, discussion p 149-56. 


Wood borer takes the count; protecting 
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Ve A245 pes 


Young, E. W. 
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Island, Sydney Harbour, N. S. W 
Inst Civil Eng Proc v 111, p 48-58. 


ADDENDA 
TO 
NEW YORK HARBOR REPORT 


Since the preparation of this report Mr. R. T. Betts, chairman of the 
committee, received from Mr. Allen Spooner of Allen N. Spooner & Co., 
Inc., a section of the pine timber cover plates from the outlet nozzles of 
the Passaic Valley sewer, which terminates in the channel near Robbins 
Reef Light in a depth of 40 feet below mean low water. 

Mr. Van Duyne, Chief Engineer of the Passaic Valley Sewerage Com- 
missioners, states that this timber was new when installed and that it 
has been in place not more than four years. The cover plates were tem- 


Fic. 169—SEcTION FROM COVER PLATES OF PASSAIC OUTLET SEWER NEAR 
ROBBINS REEF LiGHT, NEw YORK HARBOR 


porary, screw bolted to a cast iron nozzle and placed in such a manner 
that broken stone filling could be put around the nozzles for support. 
They lay in a horizontal plane, the nozzles pointing upward. 

The section shown in the illustration (Fig. 169) is from the plank join- 
ing the cover plates and was removed May 31, 1924. 

As may be seen from the illustration, the damage by shipworms was 
quite heavy and as it occurred in what by some has been considered terri- 
tory free from serious attacks by marine borers, the information is thought 
to be of sufficient importance to justify its being appended to this report. 

Living organisms were taken from the timber at the time this specimen 


was obtained. 


523 


INDEX 


A 


Abrams, Duff A., 462 
Absecon Inlet, 285 


Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
Mass., 53 


Academy of Science of St. Louis, Mo., 53 
Acetate of lead, service records of, 106 


Aczol, 207, 214, 219 
impregnation, 212 


Alaska Central Railway, 77 
Alea cement, see ciment fondu 


Algae, see “organisms found’? under harbor 
reports 


Allen, M. S., toxicological investigations by, 


Boston, 


5] 


Aloes, 184, 190 

American Cyanamid Co., 268 

American Museum of Natural History, 4 
American Railway Association, 2 


American Railway Engineering Associa~ 
tion, 2, 5 

American Sugar Refining Company, 5, 240, 
268, 289 


Ammonia, 177 


Amphipoda, see “organisms found” under 
harbor reports 

Animals boring in timber, 21 

Animals boring in rock, 71 

Anomia, see ‘organisms found’ under 


harbor reports 
Antimony compounds, 184, 190, 195, 391 
Arecibo, port of, 435 
Armstrong, A. K., 77 


records of tests of protection methods 
compiled by, 87 


Arsenic and its compounds, 195 


Arsenious iodide and copper iodide, service 
records of, 106 


Scape eon eenam & Atlantic R. R., 314, 
uf ; - 


Atlantic City, 285 
Atlantic Coast Line R. R., 314, 322, 326 


Atlantic Steamship Lines (Southern Pacific 
Company), 5 


Atwood, Col. Wm. G., 2, 168 
Aux Cayes, Haiti, 424 


B 


Babcock and Wilcox Company, 270 
water analyses by, 18, 276 
Balanus, see “organisms found” under har- 
bor reports 
Baltimore & Ohio R. R., 5, 268, 289 
Baltimore, harbor board of, 289 
Baltimore harbor, see harbor reports 
Bancroft, Dr. W. D., 1 ' 
Bangor & Aroostock R. R., 5 
Bankia, 26, 28, 31, 48; see also “organisms 
found” under harbor reports 
breeding season of, 169 


effect of decrease-in salinity on, 192 
gouldi, 169 


locations where found, 49 
mexicana, 49 
reaction of the digestive tract of, 192 
season of activity of, see individual har- 
bor reports 
setacea, 48, 49 
species I, K, T, X, 50 
species V, 424 
study of the wood boring activities of, 194 
zeteki, 50 
Barger, G., 169 
Barium and its compounds, 
215, 219 
Barren oil, 391 
Benzol and its compounds, 


Barks, service records of, 87 
Barnea crucigera, 443 
Barnegat City, 285 
Barol, service records of, 346 
Barrett Company, 5, 122 
Barrows, Dr. Albert L., 1, 462 
Bartsehs Dr Paul 4 

protection process patented by, 106 
Bates, 155 
Bay Shore yacht club, 269 
Beaufort harbor, see harbor reports 
Bermuda Biological Board, 8 
Betisvene ly tlwo2s 
Beverly harbor, 232 
Bibliography, 462 
Bied, M. Jules, 157 
Biological Board of Canada, 7, 20 
Biological survey, 3 
Biology, 6 
Blast furnace slag cement, 156 
Blue Points Co., 269 


Bomme, Leendert, description of boring 
method of pholads by, 71 


Borers, protection against, 87; 
Animals, etc. 


Boston Army Supply Base, 
structures of, 246 


Boston & Albany R. R., 240, 241 
Boston & Maine R. R., 227, 240 
Boston harbor, see harbor reports 
Bray, el cec Agee Goro. 
Bridgeport harbor, 261 

British Columbia, see harbor reports 
British Museum, 10 

Brunswick, Ga., 312 


Bryozoa, see “organisms found” under har- 
bor reports 


Built up piles, service records of, 88 
Burchartz, H., 155 

Bureau of Fisheries, Beaufort, N. C., 3 
Bureau of Standards, 155 

Buzzards Bay, see harbor reports 


186, 190; 208, 


Mite 184, 186, 


see also 


condition of 


Cc 


Calcium fluoride, 184, 190 
Calms Oia VW eee O 


525 


526 INDEX 


Camp process concrete casings, 105 
Canal Zone, see harbor reports 
Cancer productus, 400 

Candlot, H., 155 


Cape Ann, condition of Sandy Bay break- 
water at, 238 


Cape Cod canal, 250, 252 
Cape Fear river, 303 

service records of structures in, 396 
Caper Mayo NeeJdeanaso 


Carbolineum avenarius, service records of, 
90, 91, 348 


Carbolineum Wood Preserving Co., 90 
Carquinez Straits, 1, 384 
Carter)! Re Ho iia 18% 
Cast iron, 158, 164 
comparison of, with concrete, 159 
objections to use of, 159 


service records of, 160; 
reports 


Cast iron casings, service records of, 94, 
641; see also harbor reports 


Cavite, P.-1., 450 

coaling plant at, 459 
Cedar Keys, Fla., 337 
Cement gun used for precasting casings, 100 
Central of Georgia R. R., 5, 314 
Central Railread of New Jersey, 5, 268 
Channel Five Fla., 321 
Charleston Dry Dock & Machine Co. 310 
Charleston harbor, see harbor reports 
Charleston lighthouse depot, 309 


Charlestown Navy Yard, condition of struc- 
tures of, 241 


Charring and tarring, service records of, 88 
Chelura, 21, 25 


terebrans, 23, 25 
insulae, 25, 53, 57, 58 


Chemical Warfare Service, 2, 48, 164, 303 
progress report of, 165 

Chesapeake & Ohio R. R., 5, 297 

Chestnut, 261 

Chlorinated cellulose, 208, 211, 216 

Chlorinated paraffine, 218 
in carbon tetrachloride, 209 

Chlorine, generation of, by electrolysis, 198 

Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide, 172, 184, 186, 

LSS lS Set 90s 195 

Christiana river, 285 

Christiansted, V. I., 420 

Church, Sumner R., 122 

Ciment électrique, 157 

Ciment fondu, 157 


@lapp We Leas 2 taelkis 
description of new species by, 37, 40, 41, 
, 46 


Clark, Austin H., 4 

Cliona, oyster shells attacked by, 72 

Coast and Geodetic Survey, 20 

Coco Solo, C. Z., 445 

Coker Dre uel 

Hoa aes paint process, service records of, 


see also harbor 


Committee on Marine Piling Investigations, 7 
Concrete casings, service records of, 99, 164 
result of building too short, 107 


Concrete, 151, 164 
comparative shrinkage of lean and rich 
mixtures of, 158 


reinforced, deterioration of, due to cor- 
rosion of metal, 158 

structures in American waters, service 
records of, 154; see also harbor re- 


ports ‘ : 
structures in foreign waters, service rec- 
ords of, 152 


Corpus Christi, Tex., 359 


Copper and its compounds, 172, 183, 184, 
186, 188, 189, 190, 207, 208, 209, 214, 
215, 216, 217, 2usie2i9 


Copper bound blocks, tests of, 11, 14, 256, 
309, 370 


Copper paints, service records of, 91; 
see also harbor reports 


Copper sheathing for piles, tests of, 18, 336 
service records of, 93, 94, 164; see also 
harbor reports 


Copper strips as sheathing for piles, tests 
of, 718) 9 


Copper sulphate, service records of, 106 
Cottonwood, see timber 

Crabs found in disintegrated concrete, 400 
Crabtree Ledge, Me., 223 


Creosote; 108,163) 177,208, 211-2317 e2i5 
cause of failure of, 109 
efficacy of, against marine borers, 109 
extracted from old piles, analyses of, 109 
Biloxi Bay trestle, 119 
crane foundation of N. N. S. B. & D. D. 
Co., 125 
Galveston Bay bridge of A. T. & S. F. 
RAR ik 
Hen pier, San Juan, Porto Rico, 


Long wharf, Oakland, Cal., 109 

N. & W. coal pier No. 2, Norfolk, 123 
N. & W. warehouse No. Ue Norfolk, 122 
N. & W. warehouse No. 2, Norfolk, 122 
naval wharf, St. Thomas, Vee 123 
Pensacola naval station, 123 

pier 1, San Juan, Porto Rico, 124 
tabulated results of, 137 

cere river docks, So. Ry., Brunswick, 


fractions, tests of, 140 
Gulfport experiments, 141 
National Research Council tests, 145 
Pensacola experiments, 
San Diego experiments, 141 
San Francisco Bay Committee tests, 144 
San Francisco experiments, 141 
necessity for care in handling timber im- 
pregnated with, 150 
ey he securing uniform penetration 
of, 
recommendations for use of, 150 
service records of, 137; see also harbor 
reports 
Charleston Terminal Co. wharf, 138 
Clyde Line pier, ment a. 138 
Pinners Point, Va., 
So. Ry. coal pier, Snarkestee 137 
sees Turtle River docks, Brunswick, 


Creosote impregnation, 211; see also creosote 
Crustacea, 21 
rock boring, 71 

Crustacean borers, 6 

Crystal violet, 172, 181, 184, 186, 188, 189, 
190, 212, 215 

Crystal violet ‘and copper tannate 207, 219 

Cumberland Sound, 320 

Cunard Line, 5 

Cutler, Me., 223 

D 

Davies, J. Vipond, on graphitic corrosion of 
east iron, 159 

Day, A. L., 155. 

de Castro, Eduardo, 155 


INDEX 


Delaware Bay, see harbor reports 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R., 


Diatomaceous earth, use of as admixture, 
156 


Diphenylamine arsenious oxide, 184, 186, 
190 
Diphenyl arsenious oxide, 184, 186, 190, 
216, 218 
in creosote, 208, 219 
in fuel oil, 209 
Diphenylamine chlorarsine, 1838, 186, 188, 


190; 215, 218), 219 
in creosote, 208 
paraffine solution of, 209 


Diphenylchlorarsine in creosote, 208, 209 
in fuel oil, 209 
in paraffine, 209 


Direct black, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 215 
Direct blue, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 215 

Dixon, S. M., 169 

Dominican Republic, see harbor reports 

Douglas fir, tests of, at Port Bolivar, 370 
Dutch Harbor, Alaska, 408 

Dye impregnation, 210 


1D 


Eastern coast of Florida, see harbor reports 

Eddystone Lighthouse, cement used in con- 
struction of, 155 

Edgewood arsenal, 203 

Engineering Foundation, 3 

Engineering Standards Committee, specifi- 
cations for blast furnace slag cement 
adopted by, 156 

Erie Railroad, 5 

Exosphaeroma oregonensis, 26, 403 


Explanation of plates, 53 
r 


Fajardo harbor, 436 

Fall River, 250 

Feret, R., 155 

Fernandina, Fla., 320 

Ferric ferricyanide, 207 

Ferric orthonitrobenzoate, 186, 190 
Finance, 5 

Fishers Island, 259 

Flinn, Alfred D., 2 

Florida East Coast Ry., 5, 18, 322, 332 
Fort Dade, Fla., 337 

Fort Heath, seawall at, 244 

Fort Jackson, La., 340 


Fort Lyon, revetment at, 229 
seawall at, 229 


Fort McKinley, seawall at, 231 


Fort Marion, Fla., service records of con- 
erete structures at, 330 


Fort Morgan, Ala., 355, 358 

Fort Moultrie, cast iron pile wharf near, 310 
Fort Point, Me., 223 

Fort Taylor, condition of seawall at, 330 
Fort Terry wharf, 260 

Fort Warren, seawall at, 244 

Fort Williams, wharf at, 229 

Fuller, Nelson M., 46 


527 


G 


Galveston, Tex., 358 
Gardner, Dr. Henry A., 169 


Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie In- 
stitution of Washington, 155 


Gerlaches solution, service records of, 106 


Glass (soluble) and chloride of calcium, ser- 
vice records of, 106 


Goodrich hie be 

Grand Trunk Railway, 18, 229 

Great Bridge, Va., 298 

Greenport harbor, 260 

Gribble, 21; see also limnoria 
Guantanamo, Cuba, see harbor reports 


Guantanamo naval station, concrete pier 
at, 415 


Guaymas, Mexico, 371 

Guilford harbor, 260. 

Gulf, Mobile & Northern R. R., 355 
Gulfport, Miss., 340 

Gulf & Ship Island R. R., 342 


H 
Hale, I’. E., 271 
Harbor reports, 221 


Alaskan Coast, 403 
history of past attacks along, 408 
organisms found, 408 
water analyses, 410 


Baltimore harbor, 288 
; history of past attacks in, 288 
organisms found in, 289 
test boards placed in, 289 
water analyses of, 289 


Beaufort harbor and Cape Fear river, 303 
concrete structures in, service records 
of, 306 
organisms found in, 304 
season of shipworm activity in, 307 
test boards placed in, 303 


Boston harbor, 238 
history of past attacks in, 240 
organisms found in, 240 
structures in, service records of, 241 
test boards placed in, 240 
water analyses of, 241 


British Columbia, 403 
water analyses of Departure bay, 403 


Brunswick, see Savannah and Brunswick 
harbors. 


Buzzards and Narragansett Bays, 248 
history of past attacks, 250 
organisms found in, 252 
season of shipworm activity in, 254 
structures in, service records of, 256 
water analyses of, 256 


Canal Zone, 442 
history of past attacks, 443 
organisms found, 445 
season of shipworm activity, 445 
special tests, 445 
structures, service records of, 448 
test boards placed, 445 
water analyses, 443, 445 
Cape Fear river, see Beaufort, etc. 
Charleston, S. C., harbor, 308 
field experiments in, 309 
organisms found in, 308 
season of shipworm activity in, 312 
structures in, service records of, 310 
water analyses of, 309 


Delaware Bay, see New Jersey Coast, etc. 


Dominican Republic, 426 
history of past attacks, 427 
organisms found, 428 


528 


Harbor reports (continued) 
Dominican Republic (continued) 
season of shipworm activity, 435 
structures, service records of, 429 
test boards placed, 428 


Eastern coast of Florida, 319 
history ot past attacks along, 321 
organism found along, 322 
season of shipworm activity, 331 
structures along, service records of, 326 
test boards placed along, 322 
water analyses, 326 


Guantanamo, Cuba, 413 
history of past attacks at, 413 
organisms found at, 413 
season of shipworm activity, 414 
structures at, service records of, 415 
test boards placed at, 414 
water analyses, 414 


Gulf of Mexico—Mississippi River to Key 
West, 336 

history of past attacks in, 342 
organisms found in, 342 
season of shipworm activity in, 354 
structures in, service records of, 346 
test boards placed in, 342 
water analyses of, 346 


Gulf of Mexico—Sabine Pass to Point 
Isabel, 358 

history of past attacks in, 359 
organisms found in, 359 
season of shipworm activity in, 360 
special tests in, 370 
structures in, service records of, 370 
test boards placed in, 366 
water analyses of, 368 


Key West harbor, 331 
history of past attacks in, 332 
organisms found in, 332 
season of shipworm activity in, 336 
special tests in, 336 
structures in, service records of, 334 
test boards placed in, 332 
water analyses of, 332 


Long Island Sound (Point Judith to 
Throgs Neck), 258 

history of past attacks in, 261 
organisms found in, 261 
season of shipworm activity in, 265 
special tests of pine and oak in, 264 
structures in, service records of, 264 
test boards placed in, 262 


Los Angeles harbor, 379 
history of past attacks in, 379 
organisms found in, 379 
season of shipworm activity, 383 
structures in, service records of, 380 
test boards placed in, 379 


Maine coast, 221 
experiments with copper strips at Port- 
land, 229 
history of past attacks along, 227 
organisms found along, 227 
structures along, service records of, 229 
test boards placed along, 227 


Mobile harbor, 354 
history of past attacks in, 355 
organisms found in, 357 
season of shipworm activity in, 355 
structures in, service records of, 357 
test boards placed in, 355 
water analyses of, 357 


Narragansett Bay, see Buzzards Bay, etc. 


New Jersey coast and Delaware Bay, 285 
history of past attacks, 285 
organisms found, 287 
season of shipworm activity, 288 
structures, service records of, 288 
test boards placed, 286 

New York harbor, 265 
history of past attacks in, 265 
organisms found in, 269 


INDEX 


organization of local committee of, 265 
recent attack by shipworms in, 523 
season of shipworm activity in, 271 
test boards placed in, 268 

water analyses of, 271 


Norfolk harbor 289 
history of past attacks in, 293 
organisms found in, 297 
protection methods, 299 
season of shipworm activity in, 298 
structures (concrete), service records 

of, 302 

eee (metal), service records of, 


water analyses of, 298 


Pacific Islands, 448 
history of past attacks, 450 
organisms found, 450 
structures, service records of, 455 
test boards placed, 452 
water analyses, 450 


Porto Rico, 435 
history of past attacks, 436 
organisms found, 437 
structures, service records of, 439 
test boards placed, 437 
water analyses, 441 


Portsmouth, N. H. to Provincetown, Mass., 
231 


history of past attacks, 234 
organisms found, 234 

structures, service records of, 238 
test boards placed, 236 


Puget Sound, 392 
history of past attacks in, 392 
organisms found in, 393 
structures in, service records of, 396 
test boards placed in, 393 
water analyses of, 393 

Republic of Haiti, 423 
history of past attacks, 423 
organisms found, 424 
test boards placed, 423 

San Diego bay, 372 
history of past attacks in, 374 
organisms found in, 
structures in, service records of, 377 
test boards placed in, 374 

San Francisco bay, 383 
history of past attacks in, 384 
structures in, service records of, 388 
studies of by San Francisco Committee, 

385 

test boards placed in, 390 
water analyses of, 384 

Savannah and Brunswick harbors, 312 
organisms found in, 312 
season of shipworm activity in, 316 
test boards placed in, 314 
water analyses of, 316 

Virgin Islands, 418 
history of past attacks, 420 
organisms found, 420 
structures, service records of, 423 
test boards placed, 420 , 


West Coast of Mexico, 371 
organisms found, 371 
test boards placed, 371 


Harington, C. R., 169. 

Hatsel, Chas. H., 168, 181, 203 
Hemlock, 408 

Hexachlorethane, 182, 184, 190 


Hingham’ ammunition depot, condition of 
structures of, 242 


Hoboken, N. J., see New York harbor 
Honolulu, 449 

Hoop iron, service records of, 99 
Housatonic river, 260 

Houston, port of, 366 


INDEX 


Houston Ship Channel, Tex., 359, 366 
Hunt, Geo. M., 2 
Huston, ©: Aa 2 
Hydrogen ion concentration, 18, 193 


Hydroids, see “organisms found” 
harbor reports 


Hydrometer, see salinometer 


under 


I 


Illinois Central R. R., 342 


Injected preservatives, 106, see also creosote 
double injection process, 108 
Baia process, service records of, 
creosote impregnation, also 

creosote 
powellizing process, 
108 


108, see 


service records of, 


soluble salts, 106 
wood products as 
records of, 108 


International Navigation Congress, 153 
Todine, 195 


Isopods, see “organisms 
harbor reports 


protection, service 


found” under 


J 


Jacksonville, Fla., 320 

Jeanneret, Dr. B., 155 

Jersey City, N. J., see New York harbor 
Johnson, A. A., 45 

Jouannetia pectinata, 443 

Juneau, Alaska, 405 

Jupiter, Fla., 320 


K 


Kansas City Southern Ry., 5, 366 


Kennons teredo proof paint, service records 
of, 91, 348 


Ketchikan, Alaska, 405 

Kodiak, Alaska, 408 

Koetitz pile, service records of, 100 
Kofoid, Dr. Chas. A., 2, 3, 462 
Kornhauser, Dr. S. L., 4 

Kyanizing, service records of, 106 


L 


Lead orthonitrobenzoate, 184, 190 
Le Chatelier, H., 155 

Lehigh Valley R. R., 5, 268 
Lewes, Del., 285 

Lewis Institute, 462 

Lewisite, 167 


Limnoria, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26.. see also 
“organisms found’ under’ harbor 
reports 


andrewsi, 24, 53, 57, 58 

attack on creosoted timber of, 23 

breeding season of, 169 

effect of the increase in the hydrogen ion 
concentration on. 193 

lignorum, 21, 22, 24, 26, 533 169 

locations where found, 

toxicity tests on, 183 


Long Island R. R., 5, 269 
Lorenz, Dr. G., reports received through, 99 
Luiggi, Luigi, 155 


529 


M 


Maine coast, see harbor reports 
Manasquan inlet, 285 

Manila, P. I., 450 

Mare Island Navy Yard, 1 
Marine borers, see borers 


Marine piling investigations, progress report 
on by Chemical Warfare Service, 167 
generation of chlorine by electrolysis 
(append II), 198 
table of contents, 197 
preservation of new structures (appendix 
III), PAUBS See also protection 
against borers 
table of contents, 202 
toxicity of certain compounds, (appendix 
I), 181; see also protection against 
borers 
table of contents, 180 


Mark, Dr. BE. L., 4 


Martesia, 26, 28, 29, 50; see also “organ- 
isms found” under harbor reports 
curta, 443 
how affected by creosote, 50 
locations where found, 50 
rate of destruction caused by, 50 
striata, 51, 56, 
extremely destructive to test blocks at 
Cavite, P. I., 
. found in palmetto poles, 78 
xzylophaga, 443 
Warttosee bw Dp 122 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 4 
Mayaguez bay, 435 
Mazatlan, 371 


Mercuric compounds, 172, 184, 186, 188, 190, 
208, 209, 214, 219 
Metal structures, 158, 
harbor reports 
Methylene blue, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 209 
copper tannate, 217, 219 
Miami, Fla., 321 
Michaelis, W., 155 
Milford Point, 260 
Miller, Dr Re Cres 
paper on ‘‘Wood boring mollusks from the 
Hawaiian, Samoan and Philippine 
Islands” by, 338, 51 
Miner, Roy, 4 
Mississippi sound, 339 
Moll, Dr. Frederick, 462 
Mollusca, 26 
rock boring, 71 
attack on concrete structures by, 71, 72 
Carditamera affinis, 72 
Gastrochaena ovata, stone perforated 
Deere 
Lithophaga aristata, 
Boca dock by, 71 
meh ag aE ks bisculata, stone perforated 
Ys 
Mya arenaria, 74 
Petricola carditoides, 74 
Pholadidea panita Conrad, 74 
Platyodon cancellara, 74 
Saxicava purascens, 72 
Saavicava solida, 72 
wood boring, see Bankia, Martesia or 
Teredo 
Molluscan borers, 6, see also Mollusca 
Mollusks, see mollusca 


Monel metal as sheathing for piles, tests of, 
18, 


Moran process, service records of, 96 
Muntz metal, service records of, 93, 348 
Museum de |’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 10 


see also individual 


damage to La 


530 


Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard 
University, 4 


Mystic river, 259 


Mytilus, see “organisms 
harbor reports 


found’ under 


N 


Narragansett Bay, see harbor reports 

National Research Council, 5 

Nawiliwili, 450 Ps 

Newark, N. J., see New York harbor 

New Bedford harbor, 250 

New Haven harbor, 260 

New Jersey Board of Commerce & Navi- 
gation, 286 

New Jersey coast, see harbor reports 

New London, 259 


New London submarine base, condition of 
structures at, 264 


Newport direct black, 208 
Newport direct sky blue, 207 
Newport harbor, 250 
Newport News, 290 


Newport News Shipbuilding 
Co,, 16, 18, 297 


Newport, R. I., naval station, condition of 
structures at, 256 


New York Central R. R., 5, 268 

New York City Board of Estimate & Ap- 
portionment, 271 

New he City Department of Docks, 268, 

New York Committee, 3 

New York harbor, see harbor reports 

New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R., 
5, 14, 18, 236, 240, 252, 262, 268 

Norfolk & Western R. R., 5, 297 

Norfolk harbor, see harbor reports 

Norfolk Southern R. R., 297, 303 


& Dry Dock 


C0) 


Oak, tests of at Port Bolivar, 370 
Olongapo, concrete wharves at, 459 
Oregonia gracilis, 400 
Orthonitrobenzoic acid, 184, 190 


Ostrea. see “organisms found’’ under har- 
bor reports 


Oxygen content, determinations of, 18 


P 


Pacific Islands, see harbor reports 


Pago Pago harbor, Samoa, 450, 452 
service records of structures in, 
460 


Paint Manufacturers’ Association, 169 
Palatka, Fla., 10 

Palmetto wood, immunity of, 11 

Se paint process, service records of, 


458, 


Paranitrobenzoic acid, 184, 186, 189, 190 
Parapholas acuminata, 443 

Paravar varnish, 211 

Paris green, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190 
Pascagoula river, 340 


Pearl harbor, 449 
service records of structures in, 455 


Pectin, see “organisms found” under harbor 
reports 


Pensacola bay, 339 


INDEX 


Pensacola naval air station, service records 
of structures at, 353 


Paynizing, service records of, 106 
Pennsylvania Railroad, 5, 206, 286, 289 
Perfection piles, service records of, 95, 97 
Perry, Jr., R. So. 168; 181, 204 

Perth Amboy, N. J., see New York harbor 
Petersburg, Alaska, 405 

Petroleum fuel oil, 209, 217 


Phenyl arsenious oxide, 172, 177, 181, 184, 
186, 189, 190, 191, 195, 218 
in carbon tetrachloride, 209 
in creosote, 209 


Pholadidae tubifera, 443 


Pholas, 29 
in concrete casings at Los Angeles, Cal., 


chiloensis, 443 “ 
Picric acid, 196 
Pile armors, service records of, 92, 163 


Pile coatings, service records of, 90, 91, 92 
efficacious for temporary structures only, 


miscellaneous, service records of, 91, 92 
Pine, loblolly, tests of at Port Bolivar, 370 


Pine, long leaf yellow, tests of at Port 
Bolivar, 307 


Plates, explanation of, 53 

Point Isabel, Tex., 359 

Poke root, 184, 190 

Ponce harbor, 436 

Port Aransas, Tex., 359 

Port Arthur, Tex., 358 

Port au Prince, Haiti, 424 

Port of New Orleans, 5 

Portland cement, free lime formed on set- 
ting of, 156 

Portland cement association, 462 

Portland, Me., 223 

Porto Rico, see harbor reports 


Portsmouth, N. H., 231 
coaling plant wall of U. S. Navy at, 237 


Portsmouth, Va., 293 
Poulsen, A., 155 


Pozzuolana, 155, 
cement 


Prescott, Prof. S. C., 40 
Protection against borers, 87 


Protection of existing structures, 168, 173; 
see also protection against borers 


Protection of new structures, 168, 175; 
see also protection against borers 


Providence, port of, 250 
Providence river, 250 
Provincetown harbor, 234 
Provincetown, Mass., 232 


Puerto Plata, 427 
service records of structures at, 434 


Puget Sound Navy Yard, service records of 
structures at, 398 


Q 


156, see also Roman 


Quarantine, La., 340 


Quebracho (Argentine) 
records of, 98 


Quinine sulphate, 186, 189, 190 
R 


process, service 


Rankin, G. A., 155 
Ray, George J., 1 
Reeds wood preservative, 346 


INDEX 


Republic of Haiti, 423 

Ridgway, F. B., 115 

Ripley pile, service records of, 100 
Rocellaria lamellosa, 453 

Rock borers, see mollusca 
Rockport, Tex., 359 


Roman cement, mixture of lime and poz- 
zuolana, 155 


Rubber in benzene, 207 


mupper iatex 208, 209, 216, 217 
impregnation, 211 


) 


Sabine Pass, Tex., 358 

St. Andrews Bay, 337 

St. Augustine, Fla., service records of ¢con- 
erete structures at, 327 

St. Johns river, Fla., 320 

concrete blocks for jetty in, 331 

St. Petersburg, Fla., 337 

Sieenomas: Van T., 418 

Salinity, determination of, 18, see also har- 
bor reports 

Salinometer used for determining salinity, 


> 


San oa wearansas Pass R. R., 5, 366, 


San Francisco bay, 1, see also harbor re- 
ports 
Francisco Bay Marine Piling Com- 
mittee, 3, 18, 169, 3838, 386 
SaniJuan, P. R., 435 
San Pablo bay, 1, 384 
San Pedro de Macoris, D. R., 426 

service records of structures at, 429 
Santa Fe System, 5, 18, 366 


Santo Domingo, 426 
service records of structures at, 431 


Santorin earth, 156 
Sap- ary Heart-wood, comparative tests of, 


San 


Saugatuck river, 261 

Savannah, see harbor reports 

Saxicava, see ‘‘organisms found” under har- 
bor. reports 

Scandinavian Engin2ering Societies, 87 

Schmitt, Dr. Waldo, 4 


Seupper nailing, 18, 163 
service records of, 98, 99, 102, 310 


Searle, Dr. Harriet Richardson, 4 

Seaboard Air Line Ry., 5, 16, 609, 322, 342 
Seward, Alaska, 4C8 

Sewell, Col. John Stephen, 2 

Shackell, Dr. L. F., 173 

Shingle blocks, 10 

Shipworms. see Teredo, Bankia 

Sigerfoos, Chas. P., 30 

Silica gel, 209, 218 

Singer Mfg. Co., 2€8 

Sitka, Alaska, 405 

Slag, blast furnace. as silicious material, 156 
Smeaton, John 155 

Sotor, service records of, yl 
Soummerntacitic KR. R., 5, 18, 366, 371 
Southern Railway, 5, 297, 308, 314, 342 
South Pass, La., 310 


Spackman, Col. Henry, high alumina 
cement first developed by, 157 


Special tests, 10 


531 


Specimens, collection of, 6 


Sphaeroma, 21, 26, 27, see also ‘organisms 
found”? under harbor reports 
quadridentum, 25, 2 
destructor, 25, 26 
locations where found, 26 
pentadon, 25, 26 


Spooner, Allen, 523 

Spruce, 408 

Standard Oil Co., 268, 289, 308 

Staten Island, N. Y., see New York harbor 


Steel, comparison of with concrete, 162 
durability of, 158 
service records of, 161; see also harbor 
reprots 


Steel bound blocks, tests of, 16 
Charleston, S. C., 16, 309 
Coca Sola, C. Z., 16, 445 
Sin AMavepanteusy YY ti. abc beak 


Steel or iron sheathing, service records of, 


Sulphate of iron, service records of, 106 


Sulphur, 208 
impregnation, 211, 212 


4 


(Dara pan Daye blade 
Tar as pile coating, service records of, 90 


Temperature, records of, 18; see also har- 
bor reports 


Teredo, 26, 28, 32; see also “organisms 
found” under harbor reports 
affinis, 34, 54, 61 
vbartschi, 37, 54, 62, 63 
batilliformis, 41,.438, 55, 65, 67 
bipartita, 36 
clappi, 36 
diegensis, 37 
dilatata, 36 
dominicensis, 36 
effect of the increase of hydrogen ion con- 
centration on, 193 
found in test blocks of cocoanut palm, 78 
fulleri, 46, 56, 69 
furcillatus, 34, 54, 60 
johnsoni, 45, 55, 68 
miraflora, 443 
navalis, 33, 169 
found in palmetto poles, 78 
locations where found, 33 
panamensis, 36 
parksi, 33, 53, 59 
portoricensis, 40, 55, 64 
samoaensis, 35, 54, 60 
sigerfoosi, 36, 169 
somersi, 44, 55, 66, 67 
species D, FE. L., 43 
species F, 48 
species G, 43 
species J, 43 
species Q, 43 
species W, 43 
species Z, 48 
thomsoni, 36 
trulliformis, 35, 54, 61 


Test boards, 1922 model, 6 
1923 model, 7 
special, employed by Newport News Ship- 
building & Dry Dock Co., 16 
Thames river, 259 
Thilmany process, service records of, 106 
Timber impregnation, methods of, 204 
cost of, 210, 211 
toxicity of compounds used in, 213 


Timber preservation, see protection against 
borers : 


532 | | INDEX 


Timber, substitutes for, 4, 151 ginaiang, 82 


advantages not found in other materials, 
151 


economy of use of, 151 


Timber for which immunity is claimed, 


kinds and service records of, 77 

Achras sapota, 84 

adios, 82 

alder, 391 

angelique, 18, 85, 86 

anigad, 82 

aningat, 82 

antam, 81 

aranga, 80, 82 

arangan, 82 

arare, 84 

arombi, 81 

Aspidosperma quebracho, 84 

azobe, 391 

bakayan, 82 

bangoran, 81 

baniakan, 81 

banutan, 81 

barit, 82 

barosingsing, 81 

barusingsing, 81 

batik, 81 

bayagkabayo dumon, 82 

binggas, 82 

binggau, 82 

birch, 86 

bitik, 81 

blackbutt, 79, 80 

black jucaro, 84 

blue gum, 79, 80 

bongog, 82 

botabon, 82 

box of East Gippsland, 79 

buch, 86 

Bucida buceras, 84 

bungalon, 81 

bunglo, 82 

busag, 82 

chicozapate, 84 

chocolate mahogany, 84 

coast ash, 79 

cottonwood, 77, 86 
tests “of —~byw Co Meeks Gee yee 
tests of, by Northern Pacific Ry., 78 
tests of, by Southern Pacific Ry., 78 
used in construction of wharf by 

Alaska Central Ry., 77 

dagingdingan, 81 

dalingdingan, 81 

daniri, 81 

Dicorynia paraensis, 85 

dinglas, 82 

dungon-dungonan, 82 

dungon, 82 

dungul, 82 

eucalyptus, 78 


EKucalyptus amygadalina and other spe- 
cies, 78 


flintwood, 79 
forest red gum, 79 
giho, 81 


gisek, 81 

gisik, 81 

giso, 81 

gisok, 81 

gisok-gisok, 81 

gray ironbark, 79 

gray gum, 78, 79 
greenheart, 85, 86 
green top ironbark, 79 
guijo, 80, 81 

gunaimai, 82 

haras, 81 

Heritiera littoralis, 82 
Homalium luzoniense, 82 
Hopea acuminata, 81 
Hopea plagata, 81 i 
hublas, 82 

ilukabban, 81 

jarrah, 79 

jigue moruro de costa, 84 
jucaro, 83 

jucaro prieto, 84 
kagemkem, 82 

Kaliot, 81 

kaliot manggachopui, 81 
kamagahai, 82 ; 
kamagahi, 82 
kamilitingan, 82 
kangkangan, 82 
kapganzan, 82 
karatakat, 82 

karri, 79 

kulatingan, 82 

kuriat, 81 

kuribu, 81 

laiusin, 82 

langog, 82 

lankangan, 82 
Lecythis ollaria, 85 
liusin, 80, 82 

lukabban, 81 

lumuluas, 82 

Lysiloma formosa, 84 
Lysiloma sabicu, 84 
magayan, 82 

magkono, 82 
malabayabas, 81, 82, 163 
malaigang, 82 
malapiga, 82 
malapuyen, 82 
malarungon, 82 
malatumbaga, 82 
malium, 81 

maluklik, 82 
malumbayabas, 82 


manbarklak, 18, 83, 85, 86, 163 


mancono, 81, 82, 163 
mangachapuy, 80, S1 
Manggasinoro, S1 
mangkono, 82 
mangroves, 78 
manna gum, 79 
mantalina, 82 
mantalingan, 82 


a 


| 
: 
’ 
j 


ss 


matamata,. 82 

messmate, 79 

mountain ash, 79, 80 
narrow leaved ironbark, 80 
nasewood, 84 

Nectandra rodioei, 85 
nispero, 84 


INDEX 


takdangan, 82 

tallow wood, 391 
tamulanan, 82 

tapgas, 82 

Tarrietia sylvatica, 82 
Terminalis buceras, $4 
tiga, 82 


oak, 86 tinadan, 82 
pagatpat, 80 Toledo wood, 370, 391 
palalan, 81 totara, 84 


palapat, 81 


Tristania decorticata, 82 


533 


palmetto, 78, 163 

palm, 78 

palo de hierro, 82 
palogapig, 82 

palongapoi, 82 
pamayanasen, 81 
paniggaian, 81 

pantoy-use pasak, 82 
Parinarium corymbosum, 82 
paronapoi, 82 

paronopin, 82 

patpat, 81 

pedada, 81 

peppermint gum, 79 
philippine ironwood, 81, 82 
Philippine lignum-vitae, 81, 32 


turpentine wood, 18, 83, 86, 163, 391 
uas-uasa, 82 

white gum, 79 

white ironbark, 79 

white stringybark, 79 
Xanthostemon verdugonianus, $2 
yacal, 80, 81 

yamban, 81 

zapotechico, 84 


Topolobampo, 371 

Townsend, Dr. C, H., 4 

Townsend, T. G., 130 

Abepeciinl, SUS6 abseS TSI, aR), ellis ale 


Toxicity tests of different compounds, 172 
discussion of results of, 189 


pirara, 81 on Bankia embryos, 187 
pisak, 81 on Bankia in wood blocks, 185 
pisek, 81 


on exposed Bankia, 183 
on Limnoria, 183 
summary of, 190 


Toxics, list of most efficient, 177, 192 
carriers for, 177 


Trass, tests of, 153, 156 
Triphenyl arsine, 184, 190 
Tuff, 156 


Tutuila, Samoa, see Pago Pago harbor 


Podacarpus totara, 84 
quebracho, 84 
quiebra-hacha, 81, 84 

red gum, 79 

red ironbark, 79 

red stringybark, 79 
Rhizophora mangle, 78 
Rhizophora natalensis, 78 
Rhizophora racemosa, 78 
Sabal palmetto, 78 
sabicu, 84 U 
sabougkaag, 82 
salifungan, 82 
salutin, 82 
sallapugud, 81 
sapodilla, 84 
saplungan, 81 
sarabsaban, 81 
sarangan, 82 


Unalaska, Alaska, 408 


U. S. Government Departments, 2 
Agriculture, 2 
Forest products Laboratory, 2 
Commerce, 2, 165 
Bureau of Fisheries, 2, 165 
Bureau of Lighthouses, 2, 8; see also 


sarrai, 81 , harbor reports 

perked guiso, 51 Coast & Geodetic Survey, 2, 20 

siakal, 81 

sigaadan, 82 Navy, 2, 8, 165 : ; 
sigai, 81 Bureau of Construction & Repair, 2, 165 
: ‘ Bureau of Yards & Docks, 2, 165; see 
siggai, $1 

: also harbor reports 

silver top, 79 

siyan, 81 Treasury, 2 

Sonneratia pagatpat, 81 Coast Guard, 2, 8; see also harbor re- 
spotted gum, 79, 80 | ports 


stringbark gum, 79 
sugar gum, 79 
Syncarpia laurifola, 83 


War, 2, 165 


Corps of Engineers, 2, 8; see also har- 
bor reports 


taba, 82 Quartermaster Corps, 2, 165 
tabon-tabon, 82 U. S. National Museum (Smithsonian In- 
taggai, 81 stitution), 10 . 


i 


erat) a ae Se 2 SSA - =) 
“ ne ey A Te vowed Te > ees 


534 


University of California, 4 
publications in zoology, 53 


University of Copenhagen, 10 


Vv 


Van Duyne, J. R., 523 

van Kuffeler, P. de Blocq, 155 
Varrelman, F, A., 4 

Vicat, study of cements by, 155 
Virgin Islands, see harbor reports 
Virginian Railway, 5, 297 


Vitrified pipe casings, service records of, 
94, 164; see also harbor reports 


von Schrenk, Dr. Hermann, 2 


Vulcanized rubber latex—sulphur chloride, 
219 


Ww 
Warren, 25% 
Washington, D. C., 289 


Water analyses, 18 
locations of samples, 20 


a* 


Westport harbor, 261 St 
West River, 260 Rr a 


* ran 


Weymouth Back river, 243 ae .* 
Wood preservation, see protection ¢ 
borers ; 
Woods Hole, Mass., 250 
Wright, F. E., 155 Vee 
Wrought iron, comparison of wit 
159 aye ae 
durability of, 159, 164 
service records of, 61 


x 


Re 
Xylotomea globosa 
Xylotria, see Bankia _ 

¥ v, 
Zetek, James, 71, 444 oe 
Zine cyanide, 188, 190 en % 
Zine sheathing, service records WE, 


rf 


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